Postnatal mammary gland development requires macrophages and eosinophils

On the birth of breast cancer

Breast carcinoma is one of the most common neoplasms in women and is a leading cause of cancer related deaths worldwide. In recent years improved diagnostic tools have made it possible to detect breast cancers at early, even pre-invasive stages leading to a significant decrease in breast cancer mortality rates over the past decades. The increased number of patients diagnosed with pre-invasive breast tumors opened up new avenues in research and new dilemmas in clinical practice, since our understanding of the pathophysiology of such lesions is just beginning to emerge. Part of the delay and difficulty with analyzing pre-invasive tumors including ductal carcinoma in situ has been due to the lack of appropriate techniques suitable for studies of small, frequently microscopic size tumors. Recently developed technologies such as DNA microarrays and SAGE (serial analysis of gene expression) have made it possible to obtain comprehensive gene expression profiles of breast carcinomas of all stages. The application of these genomics approaches in combination with the complete sequence of the human genome and extensive molecular epidemiological studies is likely to further our understanding of the molecular basis of mammary tumorigenesis and will identify targets for risk prediction, cancer prevention and treatment.

Eotaxin is required for eosinophil homing into the stroma of the pubertal and cycling uterus

The presence of eosinophils in the endometrium of rodents during the estrous cycle or after E2 administration to ovariectomized animals is well documented. Nevertheless, the chemoattractant for eosinophils and the function of E-dependent eosinophils during the estrous cycle remain unknown. Using mice homozygous for a null mutation in the gene for eotaxin, a specific chemokine for eosinophils, we have identified eotaxin as being necessary for eosinophil homing into the uterine stroma, and regulated by E2 during the estrous cycle. In the absence of eosinophils, the onset of estrous cycle displayed a 2-wk delay along with the first age of parturition, suggesting a possible local role of eosinophils present in the pubertal uterus in preparing the mature uterus for pregnancy. However, despite the absence of eosinophils, once the mice reach maturity, their estrous cycles as well as their reproductive functions were normal. Our results demonstrate that E2 acts through eotaxin to recruit eosinophils to the uterine stroma during the estrous cycle in mice, but that these cells do not have a function in regulating either the duration of the estrous cycle or fertility of mice.

Rescue of the colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1)-nullizygous mouse (Csf1(op)/Csf1(op)) phenotype with a CSF-1 transgene and identification of sites of local CSF-1 synthesis

Colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1) regulates the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of mononuclear phagocytes. It is expressed as a secreted glycoprotein or proteoglycan found in the circulation or as a biologically active cell-surface glycoprotein. To investigate tissue CSF-1 regulation, CSF-1-null Csf1(op)/Csf1(op) mice expressing transgenes encoding the full-length membrane-spanning CSF-1 precursor driven by 3.13 kilobases of the mouse CSF-1 promoter and first intron were characterized. Transgene expression corrected the gross osteopetrotic, neurologic, weight, tooth, and reproductive defects of Csf1(op)/Csf1(op) mice. Detailed analysis of one transgenic line revealed that circulating CSF-1, tissue macrophage numbers, hematopoietic tissue cellularity, and hematopoietic parameters were normalized. Tissue CSF-1 levels were normal except for elevations in 4 secretory tissues. Skin fibroblasts from the transgenic mice secreted normal amounts of CSF-1 but also expressed some cell-surface CSF-1. Also, lacZ driven by the same promoter/first intron revealed beta-galactosidase expression in hematopoietic, reproductive, and other tissue locations proximal to CSF-1 cellular targets, consistent with local regulation by CSF-1 at these sites. These studies indicate that the 3.13-kilobase promoter/first intron confers essentially normal CSF-1 expression. They also pinpoint new cellular sites of CSF-1 expression, including ovarian granulosa cells, mammary ductal epithelium, testicular Leydig cells, serous acinar cells of salivary gland, Paneth cells of the small intestine, as well as local sites in several other tissues.

Is pancreas development abnormal in the non-obese diabetic mouse, a spontaneous model of type I diabetes?

Despite extensive genetic and immunological research, the complex etiology and pathogenesis of type I diabetes remains unresolved. During the last few years, our attention has been focused on factors such as abnormalities of islet function and/or microenvironment, that could interact with immune partners in the spontaneous model of the disease, the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse. Intriguingly, the first anomalies that we noted in NOD mice, compared to control strains, are already present at birth and consist of 1) higher numbers of paradoxically hyperactive beta cells, assessed by in situ preproinsulin II expression; 2) high percentages of immature islets, representing islet neogenesis related to neonatal beta-cell hyperactivity and suggestive of in utero beta-cell stimulation; 3) elevated levels of some types of antigen-presenting cells and FasL+ cells, and 4) abnormalities of extracellular matrix (ECM) protein expression. However, the colocalization in all control mouse strains studied of fibroblast-like cells (anti-TR-7 labeling), some ECM proteins (particularly, fibronectin and collagen I), antigen-presenting cells and a few FasL+ cells at the periphery of islets undergoing neogenesis suggests that remodeling phenomena that normally take place during postnatal pancreas development could be disturbed in NOD mice. These data show that from birth onwards there is an intricate relationship between endocrine and immune events in the NOD mouse. They also suggest that tissue-specific autoimmune reactions could arise from developmental phenomena taking place during fetal life in which ECM-immune cell interaction(s) may play a key role.

Colony-stimulating factor 1 promotes progression of mammary tumors to malignancy

In human breast carcinomas, overexpression of the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF-1) and its receptor (CSF-1R) correlates with poor prognosis. To establish if there is a causal relationship between CSF-1 and breast cancer progression, we crossed a transgenic mouse susceptible to mammary cancer with mice containing a recessive null mutation in the CSF-1 gene (Csf1(op)) and followed tumor progression in wild-type and null mutant mice. The absence of CSF-1 affects neither the incidence nor the growth of the primary tumors but delayed their development to invasive, metastatic carcinomas. Transgenic expression of CSF-1 in the mammary epithelium of both Csf1(op)/Csf1(op) and wild-type tumor-prone mice led to an acceleration to the late stages of carcinoma and to a significant increase in pulmonary metastasis. This was associated with an enhanced infiltration of macrophages into the primary tumor. These studies demonstrate that the growth of mammary tumors and the development to malignancy are separate processes and that CSF-1 selectively promotes the latter process. CSF-1 may promote metastatic potential by regulating the infiltration and function of tumor-associated macrophages as, at the tumor site, CSF-1R expression was restricted to macrophages. Our data suggest that agents directed at CSF-1/CSF-1R activity could have important therapeutic effects.

Murine eotaxin-2: a constitutive eosinophil chemokine induced by allergen challenge and IL-4 overexpression

The generation of tissue eosinophilia is governed in part by chemokines; initial investigation has identified three chemokines in the human genome with eosinophil selectivity, referred to as eotaxin-1, -2, and -3. Elucidation of the role of these chemokines is dependent in part upon analysis of murine homologues; however, only one murine homologue, eotaxin-1, has been identified. We now report the characterization of the murine eotaxin-2 cDNA, gene and protein. The eotaxin-2 cDNA contains an open reading frame that encodes for a 119-amino acid protein. The mature protein, which is predicted to contain 93 amino acids, is most homologous to human eotaxin-2 (59.1% identity), but is only 38.9% identical with murine eotaxin-1. Northern blot analysis reveals three predominant mRNA species and highest constitutive expression in the jejunum and spleen. Additionally, allergen challenge in the lung with Aspergillus fumigatus or OVA revealed marked induction of eotaxin-2 mRNA. Furthermore, eotaxin-2 mRNA was strongly induced by both transgenic over-expression of IL-4 in the lung and administration of intranasal IL-4. Analysis of eotaxin-2 mRNA expression in mice transgenic for IL-4 but genetically deficient in STAT-6 revealed that the IL-4-induced expression was STAT-6 dependent. Recombinant eotaxin-2 protein induced dose-dependent chemotactic responses on murine eosinophils at concentrations between 1-1000 ng/ml, whereas no activity was displayed on murine macrophages or neutrophils. Functional analysis of recombinant protein variants revealed a critical role for the amino terminus. Thus, murine eotaxin-2 is a constitutively expressed eosinophil chemokine likely to be involved in homeostatic, allergen-induced, and IL-4-associated immune responses.

The osteoclast differentiation factor osteoprotegerin-ligand is essential for mammary gland development

Osteoprotegerin-ligand (OPGL) is a key osteoclast differentiation/activation factor essential for bone remodeling. We report that mice lacking OPGL or its receptor RANK fail to form lobulo-alveolar mammary structures during pregnancy, resulting in death of newborns. Transplantation and OPGL-rescue experiments in opgl-/- and rank-/- pregnant females showed that OPGL acts directly on RANK-expressing mammary epithelial cells. The effects of OPGL are autonomous to epithelial cells. The mammary gland defect in female opgl-/- mice is characterized by enhanced apoptosis and failures in proliferation and PKB activation in lobulo-alveolar buds that can be reversed by recombinant OPGL treatment. These data provide a novel paradigm in mammary gland development and an evolutionary rationale for hormonal regulation and gender bias of osteoporosis in females.

Transforming growth factor beta3 induces cell death during the first stage of mammary gland involution

Involution of the mammary gland following weaning is divided into two distinct phases. Initially, milk stasis results in the induction of local factors that cause apoptosis in the alveolar epithelium. Secondly after a prolonged absence of suckling, the consequent decline in circulating lactogenic hormone concentrations initiates remodeling of the mammary gland to the virgin-like state. We have shown that immediately following weaning TGFbeta3 mRNA and protein is rapidly induced in the mammary epithelium and that this precedes the onset of apoptosis. Unilateral inhibition of suckling and hormonal reconstitution experiments showed that TGFbeta3 induction is regulated by milk stasis and not by the circulating hormonal concentration. Directed expression of TGFbeta3 in the alveolar epithelium of lactating mice using a beta-lactoglobulin promoter mobilized SMAD4 translocation to the nucleus and caused apoptosis of these cells, but not tissue remodeling. Transplantation of neonatal mammary tissue derived from TGFbeta3 null mutant mice into syngenic hosts resulted in a significant inhibition of cell death compared to wild-type mice upon milk stasis. These results provide direct evidence that TGFbeta3 is a local mammary factor induced by milk stasis that causes apoptosis in the mammary gland epithelium during involution.