Astrocytic neurotransmitter receptors in situ and in vivo

Group 1 mGlu receptors elevate [Ca2+]i in rat cultured cortical type 2 astrocytes: [Ca2+]i synergy with adenosine A1 receptors

Brain macroglia are known to express a diverse array of neurotransmitter receptors whose signal transduction pathways may be subject to heteroreceptor 'cross-talk'. In the current study we have examined group 1 mGlu receptor-evoked [Ca2+]i signalling, and possible heteroreceptor cross-talk, in cultured type 2 astrocytes. The selective group 1 metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor agonist (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) elevated [Ca2+]i (EC50 = 1.7 +/- 0.6 microM); an effect reversed by the selective mGlu receptor antagonist (S)-alpha-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (IC50 = 52.7 +/- 8.7 microM). DHPG-evoked [Ca2+]i responses were abolished by (1) thapsigargin (100 nM), implicating the involvement of internal Ca2+ stores in group 1 mGlu [Ca2+]i responses and (2) the removal of extracellular Ca2+. When applied alone, the selective adenosine A1 receptor agonist, N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA, 100 nM) failed to influence [Ca2+]i. However, in the presence of 1 microM DHPG, CPA potently (EC50 = 12.3 +/- 1.9 nM) increased [Ca2+]i responses. In the presence of 100 nM CPA, the efficacy of DHPG was doubled without any significant change in the DHPG EC50 value. This effect was reversed by either the selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, 8-cyclopentyltheophylline (IC50 = 50.3 +/- 19.9 nM) or overnight incubation with Pertussis toxin (100 ng/ml). We conclude that (1) type 2 astrocytes contain group 1 mGlu receptors coupled to [Ca2+]i signalling and (2) co-activation of adenosine A1 receptors enhances group 1 mGlu-evoked [Ca2+]i responses in these cells via a Gi/o G protein-mediated mechanism.

Three-dimensional relationships between hippocampal synapses and astrocytes

Recent studies show that glutamate transporter-mediated currents occur in astrocytes when glutamate is released from hippocampal synapses. These transporters remove excess glutamate from the extracellular space, thereby facilitating synaptic input specificity and preventing neurotoxicity. Little is known about the position of astrocytic processes at hippocampal synapses. Serial electron microscopy and three-dimensional analyses were used to investigate structural relationships between astrocytes and synapses in stratum radiatum of hippocampal area CA1 in the mature rat in vivo and in slices. Only 57 +/- 11% of the synapses had astrocytic processes apposed to them. Of these, the astrocytic processes surrounded less than half (0.43 +/- 22) of the synaptic interface. Other studies suggest that astrocytes extend processes toward higher concentrations of glutamate; thus the presence of astrocytic processes at particular hippocampal synapses might signal which ones are releasing glutamate. The distance between nearest neighboring synapses was usually (approximately 95%) <1 microgram. Astrocytic processes occurred along the extracellular path between 33% of the neighboring synapses, neuronal processes occurred along the path between another 66% of the neighboring synapses, and only 1% of the synapses were close enough such that neither astrocytic nor neuronal processes occurred between them. These morphological arrangements suggest that the glutamate released at approximately two-thirds of hippocampal synapses might diffuse to other synapses, unless neuronal glutamate transporters are more effective than previously reported. The findings also suggest that physiological recordings made from hippocampal astrocytes do not uniformly sample the glutamate released from all hippocampal synapses.

Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors at GABAergic synapses in monkeys

Recent data showed that group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are located perisynaptic to the postsynaptic specializations of asymmetric glutamatergic synapses in the cerebellum and hippocampus in rats. In the present study, we used immunogold labeling to elucidate the subsynaptic localization of group I mGluRs (mGluR1a and mGluR5) in the internal and external segments of the globus pallidus in monkeys. In contrast to hippocampal and cerebellar neurons, which receive massive glutamatergic inputs, dendrites of pallidal neurons are covered with GABAergic boutons from the striatum intermingled with a small proportion of glutamatergic terminals arising largely from the subthalamic nucleus. In line with previous data, mGluR1a and mGluR5 immunoreactivity was found at the edge of the postsynaptic specializations of asymmetric synapses established by subthalamic-like boutons in the monkey pallidum. However, a large proportion of gold particles were also seen in the main body of the postsynaptic specializations of symmetric synapses formed by striatal GABAergic terminals. These data raise questions about the possible sources of activation of these receptors and the potential roles of group I mGluRs in modulating GABAergic neurotransmission at striatopallidal synapses.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the hippocampus, neocortex and amygdala: a review of immunocytochemical localization in relation to learning and memory

Immunocytochemical mapping studies employing the extensively used monoclonal anti-muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) antibody M35 are reviewed. We focus on three neuronal muscarinic cholinoceptive substrates, which are target regions of the cholinergic basal forebrain system intimately involved in cognitive functions: the hippocampus; neocortex; and amygdala. The distribution and neurochemistry of mAChR-immunoreactive cells as well as behaviorally induced alterations in mAChR-immunoreactivity (ir) are described in detail. M35+ neurons are viewed as cells actively engaged in neuronal functions in which the cholinergic system is typically involved. Phosphorylation and subsequent internalization of muscarinic receptors determine the immunocytochemical outcome, and hence M35 as a tool to visualize muscarinic receptors is less suitable for detection of the entire pool of mAChRs in the central nervous system (CNS). Instead, M35 is sensitive to and capable of detecting alterations in the physiological condition of muscarinic receptors. Therefore, M35 is an excellent tool to localize alterations in cellular cholinoceptivity in the CNS. M35-ir is not only determined by acetylcholine (ACh), but by any substance that changes the phosphorylation/internalization state of the mAChR. An important consequence of this proposition is that other neurotransmitters than ACh (especially glutamate) can regulate M35-ir and the cholinoceptive state of a neuron, and hence the functional properties of a neuron. One of the primary objectives of this review is to provide a synthesis of our data and literature data on mAChR-ir. We propose a hypothesis for the role of muscarinic receptors in learning and memory in terms of modulation between learning and recall states of brain areas at the postsynaptic level as studied by way of immunocytochemistry employing the monoclonal antibody M35.

Developmental regulation of intracellular calcium by N-methyl-D-aspartate and noradrenaline in rat visual cortex

The effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate and noradrenaline on intracellular Ca2+ concentration in slices of rat visual cortex were studied using a fluorescent indicator, Fura-2. Bath application of N-methyl-D-aspartate (1-100 microM) increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration in a dose-dependent manner, especially in layers II/III. Noradrenaline (1-100 microM) also increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration in a dose-dependent manner, especially in layers I and IV. However, the maximum increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration after 100 microM noradrenaline application was less than half of that after 100 microM N-methyl-D-aspartate application in slices obtained from animals in the sensitive period. The effect of noradrenaline was most prominent in slices of the sensitive period, whereas the N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced intracellular Ca2+ concentration response decreased with age. Additive effects from application of both N-methyl-D-aspartate and noradrenaline on intracellular Ca2+ concentration were found only in the neonatal stage. Pharmacological experiments showed that alpha1-adrenergic receptors play a major role in the noradrenaline-induced intracellular Ca2+ concentration response, although both alpha2- and beta-adrenergic receptors were also partially involved. The release of Ca2+ from intracellular storage underlay the early phase of the noradrenaline-induced intracellular Ca2+ concentration response, while extracellular Ca2+ influxes contributed to the sustained phase. Experiments using a gliotoxin, fluorocitric acid, suggested that the function of glial cells is involved in the noradrenaline-induced increase of intracellular Ca2+ concentration. The larger intracellular Ca2+ concentration response to noradrenaline during the sensitive period may modulate the increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration by N-methyl-D-aspartate to maintain a higher level of cortical plasticity during this period.

Implications of immune-to-brain communication for sickness and pain

This review presents a view of hyperalgesia and allodynia not typical of the field as a whole. That is, exaggerated pain is presented as one of many natural consequences of peripheral infection and injury. The constellation of changes that results from such immune challenges is called the sickness response. This sickness response results from immune-to-brain communication initiated by proinflammatory cytokines released by activated immune cells. In response to signals it receives from the immune system, the brain orchestrates the broad array of physiological, behavioral, and hormonal changes that comprise the sickness response. The neurocircuitry and neurochemistry of sickness-induced hyperalgesia are described. One focus of this discussion is on the evidence that spinal cord microglia and astrocytes are key mediators of sickness-induced hyperalgesia. Last, evidence is presented that hyperalgesia and allodynia also result from direct immune activation, rather than neural activation, of these same spinal cord glia. Such glial activation is induced by viruses such as HIV-1 that are known to invade the central nervous system. Implications of exaggerated pain states created by peripheral and central immune activation are discussed.

Store Ca2+ depletion enhances NMDA responses in cultured human astrocytes

NMDA produced whole-cell membrane currents in cultured human astrocytes. The currents were not inhibited by the selective NMDA receptor antagonist, APV, while they were partially inhibited by the broad G-protein inhibitor, GDPbetaS. NMDA-induced currents were enhanced by either the microsomal Ca2+/ATPase inhibitors, thapsigargin and cyclopiazonic acid, or the ATP-uncoupler, dinitrophenol (DNP). In the Ca2+ assay, NMDA increased intracellular calcium concentration. The increase was inhibited by 26% in Ca2+-free extracellular solution, and it was not inhibited by APV. The results of the present study suggest that NMDA responses in human astrocytes are regulated by store Ca2+ depletion-associated signal.

Cellular aspects of trophic actions in the nervous system

During the past three decades the number of molecules exhibiting trophic actions in the brain has increased drastically. These molecules promote and/or control proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival (sometimes even the death) of their target cells. In this review a comprehensive overview of small diffusible factors showing trophic actions in the central nervous system (CNS) is given. The factors discussed are neurotrophins, epidermal growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factors, ciliary neurotrophic factor and related molecules, glial-derived growth factor and related molecules, transforming growth factor-beta and related molecules, neurotransmitters, and hormones. All factors are discussed with respect to their trophic actions, their expression patterns in the brain, and molecular aspects of their receptors and intracellular signaling pathways. It becomes evident that there does not exist "the" trophic factor in the CNS but rather a multitude of them interacting with each other in a complicated network of trophic actions forming and maintaining the adult nervous system.

Tripartite synapses: glia, the unacknowledged partner

According to the classical view of the nervous system, the numerically superior glial cells have inferior roles in that they provide an ideal environment for neuronal-cell function. However, there is a wave of new information suggesting that glia are intimately involved in the active control of neuronal activity and synaptic neurotransmission. Recent evidence shows that glia respond to neuronal activity with an elevation of their internal Ca2+ concentration, which triggers the release of chemical transmitters from glia themselves and, in turn, causes feedback regulation of neuronal activity and synaptic strength. In view of these new insights, this article suggests that perisynaptic Schwann cells and synaptically associated astrocytes should be viewed as integral modulatory elements of tripartite synapses.

A plethora of presynaptic proteins associated with ATP-storing organelles in cultured astrocytes

Cultured astrocytes can release a variety of messenger substances via receptor-mediated mechanisms, implicating their potential for regulated exocytosis and the participation of proteins of the SNARE complex. Here we demonstrate the astrocytic expression and organellar association of a large variety of synaptic proteins (synaptobrevin II, synaptotagmin I, synaptophysin, rab3a, synapsin I, SNAP-25, and syntaxin I) and also of the ubiquitous cellubrevin. As revealed by immunoblotting the expression of synaptic proteins was highest within the first few days after plating. Synaptophysin and SNAP-25 showed the most significant decline with prolonged culture time. Rab3a and synaptobrevin II were retained at a high level and synaptotagmin I, synapsin I, and syntaxin I at a lower level until 20 DIV. The immunoreaction for cellubrevin was low at the beginning and increased with prolonged culture time. As revealed by light microscopical immunocytochemistry the proteins are expressed by GFAP-positive astrocytes and associated with organelles of varying size. Immunoelectron microscopical analysis allocates synaptobrevin II and synaptophysin to the membranes of vesicular organelles. Double labeling experiments for pairs of synaptic proteins reveal that individual synaptic proteins can be entirely colocalized or partly reside on different organelles. Subcellular fractionation of astrocyte cultures by sucrose density gradient centrifugation after 2, 6, 13, and 20 DIV showed that the proteins sediment with ATP containing organelles of a broad density range. Our data suggest that messenger substances may be released from cultured astrocytes via receptor-mediated, Ca2+-dependent exocytosis.

Muscarinic cholinergic receptor signal transduction as a potential target for the developmental neurotoxicity of ethanol

Central nervous system dysfunctions (most notably mental retardation and microcephaly) are among the most significant effects of in utero exposure to ethanol. Ethanol has been shown to cause alterations of both neuronal and glial cells, including cell loss, and changes in their migration and maturation. Here, we propose that one of the potential targets for the developmental neurotoxicity of ethanol may be represented by the signal transduction systems activated by cholinergic muscarinic receptors. Ethanol has been shown to inhibit second messenger systems activated by various G-protein-coupled receptors, including certain subtypes of muscarinic receptors. Although the roles of muscarinic receptors in brain development have not been fully elucidated, two potentially relevant effects have been discovered in the past few years. By activating muscarinic receptors coupled to phospholipid metabolism, acetylcholine can induce proliferation of glial cells, and act as a trophic factor in developing neurons by preventing apoptotic cell death. Ethanol has been shown to inhibit both actions of acetylcholine in vitro. These effects of ethanol may lead to a decreased number of glial cells and to a loss of neurons, which have been observed following in vivo alcohol exposure. In turn, these may be the basis of microencephaly and cognitive disturbances in children diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.

Mature hippocampal astrocytes exhibit functional metabotropic and ionotropic glutamate receptors in situ

Astrocytes closely contact neurons where they respond to neuronally released glutamate in immature brain slices. In previous studies, neither metabotropic nor ionotropic glutamate receptor-mediated responses were detected by imaging Ca2+ in astrocytes from mature (P21-P42) animals, suggesting astrocyte glutamate receptors only contribute to hippocampus physiology during development. In contrast to Ca2+ imaging, published electrophysiological experiments suggest P30-P35 astrocytes have alpha-amino-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors. For this study, we imaged astrocytes in P31-P38 hippocampal slices to determine if metabotropic and ionotropic glutamate receptor activation elevates intracellular calcium in mature astrocytes. Drugs were perfused while [Ca2+]i was monitored (confocal imaging) in cells loaded with Calcium Green 1-AM. Imaged cells were subsequently identified as astrocytes by GFAP/S-100 immunostaining. Astrocytic Ca2+ increased after glutamate application in the presence of a glutamate uptake inhibitor. An agonist at group I/II metabotropic glutamate receptors, (+/-)-1-aminocyclopentane-trans-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (t-ACPD), elicited Ca2+ increases as did group I agonist 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG), suggesting that mature astrocytes respond to glutamate via metabotropic glutamate receptors. AMPA also elicited Ca2+ elevations that were inhibited by 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) and occurred after treatment with omega-conotoxin MVIIC to block neurotransmitter release. These results demonstrate that astrocytes in mature hippocampus have functional ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors that regulate astrocytic calcium levels. Glutamatergic regulation of astrocytic [Ca2+]i may be involved in synapse modeling, long-term potentiation, excitotoxicity and other events dependent on glutamatergic transmission in adult hippocampus.

Effects of ethanol on calcium homeostasis in the nervous system: implications for astrocytes

Ethanol is a major health concern, with neurotoxicity occurring after both in utero exposure and adult alcohol abuse. Despite a large amount of research, the mechanism(s) underlying the neurotoxicity of ethanol remain unknown. One of the cellular aspects that has been investigated in relationship to the neuroteratogenicity and neurotoxicity of ethanol is the maintenance of calcium homeostasis. Studies in neuronal cells and other cells have shown that ethanol can alter intracellular calcium levels and affect voltage and receptor-operated calcium channels, as well as G protein-mediated calcium responses. Despite increasing evidence of the important roles of glial cells in the nervous systems, few studies exist on the potential effects of ethanol on calcium homeostasis in these cells. This brief review discusses a number of reported effects of alcohol on calcium responses that may be relevant to astrocytes' functions.

Functional studies in cultured astrocytes

Studies using primary cultures of astrocytes have made essential contributions to the understanding of astrocytic functions and neuronal-astrocytic interactions. The purposes of this article are to (i) outline principles and methodologies used in the preparation of such cultures and caveats for the interpretation of the observations made; (ii) summarize astrocytic functions in turnover of the amino acid transmitters glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), in energy metabolism and in Na+,K+-ATPase-catalyzed processes and emphasize the degree to which the observations have been confirmed in intact tissue; (iii) describe regulations of astrocytic functions by transmitters and by calcium channel activity; and (iv) indicate suggestions for future functional studies using astrocytes in primary cultures and emphasize that some of the conclusions about neuronal-astrocytic interactions reached on the basis of studies in cultured cells and confirmed in intact tissue may not yet have been completely integrated into general neuroscience knowledge.

Changes in GluR4 expression induced by metabotropic receptor activation in radial glia cultures

The expression of neurotransmitter receptors in glial cells has suggested a regulatory role of these cells in synaptic function. In radial glia, glutamate receptors elicit a cascade from the membrane to the nucleus and a consequent change in gene expression. In order to gain insight into this process, we address the question of whether receptor activation leads to changes in the repertoire of AMPA/KA glutamate receptor subunits in Bergmann and Müller glial cells. Of the subunits investigated, only GluR4 was up-regulated in Bergmann glial cells both at mRNA and protein levels. In contrast, in Müller glial cells Glu treatment leads to a reduction in GluR4 mRNA and protein expression. Both effects are receptor-mediated and must probably involve group I of metabotropic glutamate receptors. Accordingly, using Northern blot analysis and RT-PCR we detected the expression of both mGluR1 and mGluR5 transcripts in the cultured cells. Our results confirm that glutamate receptors in Bergmann and Müller cells modulate gene expression and further strengthen a plausible role of glial cells in long-lasting changes in the central nervous system.

Cultured astrocytes express regional heterogeneity of the immunoreactive phenotype under basal conditions and after gamma-IFN induction

Cerebral astrocytes are known to show a region-specific phenotype, concerning the expression of several receptors and the synthesis of secreted substances. In order to find out whether this heterogeneity also exists for the immunological activation, we studied several parameters that are known to characterize activated astroglia on cultured primary rat astrocytes originating from cortex, hippocampus, striatum, septum and brain stem: major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 expression, nitric oxide (NO) production and interleukin-6 (IL-6) synthesis. Unstimulated cultures show a baseline expression of MHC class II molecules that differs from one region to another, hippocampus and brain stem showing the highest values. These differences are strongly enhanced after a 48-h incubation with gamma-interferon (gamma-IFN). NO production is also induced by a 72-h incubation with gamma-IFN, showing similar patterns of regional specialization. The baseline expressions of ICAM-1 and IL-6 also show major regional differences, with the brain stem and the striatum showing elevated values for ICAM-1, and the septum and the brain stem producing the largest amounts of IL-6. The expressions of ICAM-1 and IL-6 are not affected by an incubation with gamma-IFN. Our results demonstrate that the immunological activities of astroglial cells show regional heterogeneities. This specialization may be implicated in the pathophysiological pathways of several neurodegenerative disorders.