Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography

Pretest probability of a normal echocardiography: validation of a simple and practical algorithm for routine use

BACKGROUND

Management of increased referrals for transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) examinations is a challenge. Patients with normal TTE examinations take less time to explore than those with heart abnormalities. A reliable method for assessing pretest probability of a normal TTE may optimize management of requests.

AIM

To establish and validate, based on requests for examinations, a simple algorithm for defining pretest probability of a normal TTE.

METHODS

In a retrospective phase, factors associated with normality were investigated and an algorithm was designed. In a prospective phase, patients were classified in accordance with the algorithm as being at high or low probability of having a normal TTE.

RESULTS

In the retrospective phase, 42% of 618 examinations were normal. In multivariable analysis, age and absence of cardiac history were associated to normality. Low pretest probability of normal TTE was defined by known cardiac history or, in case of doubt about cardiac history, by age>70 years. In the prospective phase, the prevalences of normality were 72% and 25% in high (n=167) and low (n=241) pretest probability of normality groups, respectively. The mean duration of normal examinations was significantly shorter than abnormal examinations (13.8 ± 9.2 min vs 17.6 ± 11.1 min; P=0.0003).

CONCLUSION

A simple algorithm can classify patients referred for TTE as being at high or low pretest probability of having a normal examination. This algorithm might help to optimize management of requests in routine practice.

Disease activity is related to acute response to vasodilator in pulmonary artery hypertension associated with systemic lupus erythematosus

BACKGROUND

No previous study has been done on whether systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) disease activity is related to the hemodynamics and right ventricular (RV) function in patients with SLE-associated pulmonary artery hypertension (SLE-APAH).

METHODS AND RESULTS

This study prospectively recruited 54 patients (mean age, 32.8±8.4 years; 92.6% female) with SLE-APAH, including 34 patients with SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI) <5 (low score) and 20 with SLEDAI ≥5 (high score). All patients underwent right heart catheterization and iloprost inhalation, and echocardiography was performed before and immediately after iloprost inhalation. There was no difference in baseline mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) between the 2 groups; pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) was significantly higher and cardiac index was significantly lower in the low-SLEDAI group. The patients with low SLEDAI had larger RV size and worse RV systolic function on echocardiography. After iloprost inhalation, the patients with low SLEDAI had a greater decrease in mPAP and PVR than those with high SLEDAI, while significantly increased RV systolic function was found only in the low-SLEDAI group.

CONCLUSIONS

SLE activity is related to hemodynamics and RV function in SLE-APAH patients, and those with low SLEDAI might have better acute response to vasodilator inhalation.

Impact of insulin resistance on ventricular function in pulmonary arterial hypertension

BACKGROUND

Insulin resistance (IR) is an independent prognostic marker in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), although the mechanism by which it engenders risk is unknown. We prospectively investigated the clinical, laboratory, hemodynamic, and echocardiographic characteristics of insulin-sensitive (IS) and IR patients with PAH.

METHODS

This was a prospective cohort study including well-phenotyped patients with PAH proven at cardiac catheterization. Patients were classified as IS or IR on the basis of the well-validated triglyceride/high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol ratio. Clinical, laboratory, and hemodynamic characteristics were compared between cohorts. Distance walked on the 6-minute walk test (6MWT) and echocardiograms were compared between IS and IR for the sub-set of patients that had these tests within 1 month of cardiac catheterization.

RESULTS

Of the 111 PAH patients enrolled, 59 were IS, 25 were IR, and 27 were classified as indeterminate. Mean age was 45.8 ± 15.0 years. IR was associated with worse New York Heart Association class (p = 0.02). There were no differences in hemodynamics, biomarkers, 6MWT distance, or parameters of right ventricular function (i.e., tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion, myocardial performance index, and fractional area change) between groups. Despite similar systemic vascular resistance, parameters of left ventricular diastolic function were more favorable for IS vs IR, including mitral inflow E wave velocity (82 ± 17 vs. 64 ± 19 msec, p = 0.02), E/A ratio (1.2 ± 0.4 vs. 0.8 ± 0.2, p = 0.01), and lateral mitral valve E' velocity (13.9 ± 3.5 vs. 10.4 ± 2.2 msec, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

IR is associated with worse functional class and diastology compared with IS in PAH, although other prognostic parameters are similar.

Cardiac dysfunction and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Elevated levels of B-type natriuretic peptides among patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are associated with higher mortality. The pathophysiology is unclear. To establish if elevated levels of N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) are due to right or left heart dysfunction, we performed echocardiograms in 18 patients admitted to hospital with COPD. Elevated levels of NT-proBNP were associated with both right and left heart dysfunction and indicate that these patients have biventricular dysfunction rather than isolated right ventricular compromise.

Chamber dimensions and functional assessment with coronary computed tomographic angiography as compared to echocardiography using American Society of Echocardiography guidelines

Background:

The correlation between normal cardiac chamber linear dimensions measured during retrospective coronary computed tomographic angiography as compared to transthoracic echocardiography using the American Society of Echocardiography guidelines is not well established.

Methods:

We performed a review from January 2005 to July 2011 to identify subjects with retrospective electrocardiogram-gated coronary computed tomographic angiography scans for chest pain and transthoracic echocardiography with normal cardiac structures performed within 90 days. Dimensions were manually calculated in both imaging modalities in accordance with the American Society of Echocardiography published guidelines. Left ventricular ejection fraction was calculated on echocardiography manually using the Simpson’s formula and by coronary computed tomographic angiography using the end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes.

Results:

We reviewed 532 studies, rejected 412 and had 120 cases for review with a median time between studies of 7 days (interquartile range (IQR_25,75) = 0–22 days) with no correlation between the measurements made by coronary computed tomographic angiography and transthoracic echocardiography using Bland–Altman analysis. We generated coronary computed tomographic angiography cardiac dimension reference ranges for both genders for our population.

Conclusion:

Our findings represent a step towards generating cardiac chamber dimensions’ reference ranges for coronary computed tomographic angiography as compared to transthoracic echocardiography in patients with normal cardiac morphology and function using the American Society of Echocardiography guideline measurements that are commonly used by cardiologists.

Update on Perioperative Right Heart Assessment Using Transesophageal Echocardiography

Purpose of the review. This review aims to summarize recent findings relevant for perioperative 2- and 3-dimensional imaging of the right heart with transesophageal echocardiography. Special attention is given to developments that are likely to affect future approaches for prevention and therapy of perioperative right heart failure. Recent findings. Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography techniques are becoming more common for the evaluation of anatomy, volumes, and functional indices. Summary. Right heart failure continues to contribute to morbidity and mortality in the context of cardiothoracic surgery. The advent and widespread clinical use of innovative tools permitting more accurate echocardiographic assessment of the right heart will open the door to renewed interest in novel therapeutic strategies.

Different prognostic value of functional right ventricular parameters in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia

BACKGROUND

The value of standard 2-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic parameters for risk stratification in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia (ARVC/D) is controversial.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We investigated the impact of RV fractional area change (FAC) and tricuspid annulus plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) for the prediction of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) defined as the occurrence of cardiac death, heart transplantation, survived sudden cardiac death, ventricular fibrillation, sustained ventricular tachycardia, or arrhythmogenic syncope. Among 70 patients who fulfilled the 2010 ARVC/D Revised Task Force Criteria and underwent baseline transthoracic echocardiography, 37 (53%) patients experienced MACE during a median follow-up period of 5.3 (interquartile range, 1.8-9.8) years. Average values for FAC, TAPSE, and TAPSE indexed to body surface area (BSA) decreased over time (P=0.03 for FAC, P=0.03 for TAPSE, and P=0.01 for TAPSE/BSA, each versus baseline). In contrast, median RV end-diastolic area increased (P=0.001 versus baseline). Based on the results of Kaplan-Meier estimates, the time between baseline transthoracic echocardiography and experiencing MACE was significantly shorter for patients with FAC <23% (P<0.001), TAPSE <17 mm (P=0.02), or right atrial short axis/BSA ≥25 mm/m(2) (P=0.04) at baseline. A reduced FAC constituted the strongest predictor of MACE (hazard ratio, 1.08 per 1% decrease; 95% confidence interval, 1.04-1.12; P<0.001) on bivariable analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This long-term observational study indicates that TAPSE and dilation of right-sided cardiac chambers are associated with an increased risk for MACE in patients with ARVC/D with advanced disease and a high risk for adverse events. However, FAC is the strongest echocardiographic predictor of adverse outcome in these patients. Our data advocate a role for transthoracic echocardiography in risk stratification in patients with ARVC/D, although our results may not be generalizable to lower-risk ARVC/D cohorts.

Impact of right ventricular dyssynchrony on left ventricular performance in patients with pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension has been associated with right ventricular (RV) dyssynchrony which may induce left ventricular (LV) dysfunction and dyssynchrony through ventricular interdependence. The present study evaluated the influence of RV dyssynchrony on LV performance in patients with pulmonary hypertension. One hundred and seven patients with pulmonary hypertension (age 63 ± 14 years, systolic pulmonary arterial pressure 60 ± 19 mmHg) and LV ejection fraction (EF) >35% were evaluated. Ventricular dyssynchrony was assessed with speckle tracking echocardiography and defined as the standard deviation of the time to peak longitudinal strain of six segments of the RV (RV-SD) and the LV (LV-SD) in the apical 4-chamber view. Mean RV-SD and LV-SD assessed with longitudinal strain speckle tracking echocardiography were 51 ± 28 and 47 ± 21 ms, respectively. The patient population was divided according to the median RV-SD value of 49 ms. Patients with RV-SD ≥49 ms had significantly worse NYHA functional class (2.7 ± 0.7 vs. 2.3 ± 0.7, p = 0.004), RV function (tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion: 16 ± 4 vs. 19 ± 4 mm, p < 0.001), LVEF (50 ± 10 vs. 55 ± 8%, p = 0.001), and larger LV-SD (57 ± 18 vs. 36 ± 18 ms, p < 0.001). RV-SD significantly correlated with LV-SD (r = 0.55, p < 0.001) and LVEF (r = -0.23, p = 0.02). Multiple linear regression analysis showed an independent association between RV-SD and LV-SD (β = 0.35, 95%CI 0.21-0.49, p < 0.001). RV dyssynchrony is significantly associated with LV dyssynchrony and reduced LVEF in patients with pulmonary hypertension.

Echocardiographic assessment of pulmonary artery systolic pressure and outcomes in ambulatory heart failure patients

Background

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in patients with heart failure (HF) is associated with worse outcomes and is rapidly being recognized as a therapeutic target. To facilitate pragmatic research efforts, data regarding the prognostic importance of noninvasively assessed pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) in stable ambulatory patients with HF are needed.

Methods and Results

We examined the association between echocardiographic PASP and outcomes in 417 outpatients with HF (age, 54±13 years; 60.7% men; 50.4% whites; 24.9% with preserved ejection fraction). Median PASP was 36 mm Hg (interquartile range [IQR]: 29, 46). After a median follow‐up of 2.6 years (IQR: 1.7, 3.9) there were 72 major events (57 deaths; 9 urgent heart transplants; and 6 ventricular assist device implantations) and 431 hospitalizations for HF. In models adjusting for clinical risk factors and therapy, a 10‐mm Hg higher PASP was associated with 37% higher risk (95% CI: 18, 59; P<0.001) for major events, and 11% higher risk (95% CI: 1, 23; P=0.039) for major events or HF hospitalization. The threshold that maximized the likelihood ratio for both endpoints was 48 mm Hg; those with PASP ≥48 mm Hg (N=84; 20.1%) had an adjusted hazard ratio of 3.33 (95% CI: 1.96, 5.65; P<0.001) for major events and 1.47 (95% CI: 1.02, 2.11; P=0.037) for major events or HF hospitalization. Reduced right ventricular systolic function had independent prognostic utility over PASP for adverse outcomes. Right atrial pressure and transtricuspid gradient both contributed to risk.

Conclusions

Elevated PASP, determined by echocardiography, identifies ambulatory patients with HF at increased risk for adverse events.

Assessment of right ventricular structure and function in mouse model of pulmonary artery constriction by transthoracic echocardiography

Emerging clinical data support the notion that RV dysfunction is critical to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and heart failure(1-3). Moreover, the RV is significantly affected in pulmonary diseases such as pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). In addition, the RV is remarkably sensitive to cardiac pathologies, including left ventricular (LV) dysfunction, valvular disease or RV infarction(4). To understand the role of RV in the pathogenesis of cardiac diseases, a reliable and noninvasive method to access the RV structurally and functionally is essential. A noninvasive trans-thoracic echocardiography (TTE) based methodology was established and validated for monitoring dynamic changes in RV structure and function in adult mice. To impose RV stress, we employed a surgical model of pulmonary artery constriction (PAC) and measured the RV response over a 7-day period using a high-frequency ultrasound microimaging system. Sham operated mice were used as controls. Images were acquired in lightly anesthetized mice at baseline (before surgery), day 0 (immediately post-surgery), day 3, and day 7 (post-surgery). Data was analyzed offline using software. Several acoustic windows (B, M, and Color Doppler modes), which can be consistently obtained in mice, allowed for reliable and reproducible measurement of RV structure (including RV wall thickness, end-diastolic and end-systolic dimensions), and function (fractional area change, fractional shortening, PA peak velocity, and peak pressure gradient) in normal mice and following PAC. Using this method, the pressure-gradient resulting from PAC was accurately measured in real-time using Color Doppler mode and was comparable to direct pressure measurements performed with a Millar high-fidelity microtip catheter. Taken together, these data demonstrate that RV measurements obtained from various complimentary views using echocardiography are reliable, reproducible and can provide insights regarding RV structure and function. This method will enable a better understanding of the role of RV cardiac dysfunction.

Preoperative fasting does not affect haemodynamic status: a prospective, non-inferiority, echocardiography study

BACKGROUND

The link between preoperative fasting and hypovolaemia remains unclear. We tested the hypothesis that preoperative fasting does not significantly increase the proportion of patients with hypovolaemia according to transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) criteria.

METHODS

Patients of ASA status I-III and without bowel preparation were included in a non-inferiority, prospective, single-centre trial. Patients underwent passive leg raising (PLR) test and TTE at admission (Day 0) and after 8 h fasting (Day 1). The primary hypothesis was that an 8 h preoperative fasting does not increase the proportion (margin=5%) of patients with a positive PLR test ('functional approach'). The secondary hypothesis was that echocardiographic filling pressures or stroke volume (margin 10%) are not affected by preoperative fasting ('static approach').

RESULTS

One hundred patients were included and 98 analysed. After an 8 h fasting, the change in the proportion of responders to PLR was -6.1% [95% confidence interval (CI)=-16.0 to 3.8] of responders to PLR test on Day 0 when compared with Day 1. Because 95% CI was strictly inferior to 5%, there was no significant increase in the proportion of PLR responders on Day 1 when compared with Day 0. The 95% CI changes of static variables were always fewer than 10%, meaning that preoperative fasting induced significantly no relevant changes in static variables.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative fasting did not alter TTE dynamic and static preload indices in ASA I-III adult patients. These results suggest that preoperative fasting does not induce significant hypovolaemia. Clinical trial registration NCT 01258361.

Usefulness of transient elastography for noninvasive and reliable estimation of right-sided filling pressure in heart failure

Accurate noninvasive assessment of right atrial pressure (RAP) is important for volume management in patients with heart failure (HF). Transient elastography is a noninvasive and reliable method to assess liver stiffness (LS). We investigated the value of LS for evaluation of RAP in patients with HF without structural liver disease. We measured LS using transient elastography (Fibroscan) in 31 patients undergoing right-sided cardiac catheterization (test group). The relation between LS and RAP found in the test group was used to derive the best-fit model to predict RAP. The applicability of the model was then tested in a validation group of 49 additional patients. There was an excellent correlation between LS and RAP in the test group (r = 0.95, p <0.0001; RAP = -5.8 + 6.7 × ln [LS]). Natural log transformation (ln) of LS provided the regression equation to predict RAP. When the equation model derived from the test group was applied to the validation group, predicted RAP correlated excellently with actual RAP (r = 0.90, p <0.0001). The receiver operating characteristic curve analyses in the test group showed that LS favorably compared with echocardiography for detecting RAP >10 mm Hg (area under the curve 0.958 vs 0.800, respectively, p = 0.047). In the validation group, LS with a cut-off value of 10.6 kPa for identifying RAP >10 mm Hg had a higher sensitivity and accuracy (p = 0.046 and p = 0.049, respectively) than echocardiography. In conclusion, LS may offer an accurate noninvasive diagnostic method to assess RAP in patients with HF.

Estimation of right atrial pressure on inferior vena cava ultrasound in Asian patients

BACKGROUND

 Right atrial pressure (RAP) is commonly estimated using inferior vena cava (IVC) diameter and its respirophasic variations. Although a guideline has been provided for estimation of RAP due to variation in IVC dimensions based on studies in Western subjects, echocardiographic values in Asian subjects are unknown.

METHODS AND RESULTS

 We studied 369 patients who underwent IVC ultrasound within 24h of right heart catheterization (RHC). The maximum and minimum IVC diameter during a respiratory cycle and the percent collapse after a sniff test were measured. These IVC parameters were compared with mean RAP measured on RHC. Receiver operating characteristic curves were generated for each IVC parameter to determine the optimal cut-off to detect RAP >10mmHg. The IVC maximum diameter cut-off for detecting RAP >10mmHg was 19mm (sensitivity, 75%; specificity, 78%) and the percent collapse cut-off was 30% (sensitivity, 75%; specificity, 83%). Both cut-offs were smaller than those previously reported in patients from Western countries. When the cut-off values from the existing guideline were applied to the present cohort, the sensitivity and specificity for normal RAP (0-5mmHg) were 38.6% and 74.2%, respectively, and 60.0% and 92.0% for elevated RAP (>10mmHg).

CONCLUSIONS

 The optimal IVC maximum diameter and percent collapse cut-offs to detect elevated RAP were smaller in Asian subjects than in a previously reported Western cohort. 

Reference intervals for the echocardiographic measurements of the right heart in children and adolescents: a systematic review

Background

Transthoracic echocardiography is the primary imaging modality for the diagnosis of right ventricular (RV) involvement in congenital and acquired heart diseases. There is increasing recognition of the contribution of RV dysfunction in heart diseases affecting children and adolescents, but there is insufficient information on reference intervals for the echocardiographic measurements of the right heart in children and adolescents that represent all the continental populations of the world.

Objective

The aim of this systematic review was to collate, from published studies, normative data for echocardiographic evaluation of the right heart in children and adolescents, and to identify gaps in knowledge in this field especially with respect to sub-Saharan Africans.

Methods

We performed a systematic literature search to identify studies of reference intervals for right heart measurements as determined by transthoracic echocardiography in healthy children and adolescents of school-going age. Articles were retrieved from electronic databases with a combination of search terms from the earliest date available until May 2013.

Results

Reference data were available for a broad range of variables. Fifty one studies out of 3096 publications were included. The sample sizes of the reference populations ranged from 13 to 2036 with ages varying from 5 to 21 years. We identified areas lacking sufficient reference data. These included reference data for determining right atrial size, tricuspid valve area, RV dimensions and areas, the RV % fractional area change, pulmonary artery pressure gradients and the right-sided haemodynamics, including the inferior vena cava dimensions and collapsibility. There were no data for sub-Saharan African children and adolescents.

Conclusion

Reliable reference data are lacking for important echocardiographic measurements of the RV in children and adolescents, especially for sub-Saharan Africans.

A simplified echocardiographic technique for detecting continuous-flow left ventricular assist device malfunction due to pump thrombosis

BACKGROUND

Malfunction of a continuous-flow left ventricular assist device (CF-LVAD) due to device thrombosis is a potentially life-threatening event that currently presents a diagnostic challenge. We aimed to propose a practical echocardiographic assessment to diagnose LVAD malfunction secondary to pump thrombosis.

METHODS

Among 52 patients implanted with a CF-LVAD from a single center who underwent echocardiographic pump speed-change testing, 12 had suspected pump thrombosis as determined by clinical, laboratory, and/or device parameters. Comprehensive echocardiographic evaluation was performed at baseline pump speed and at each 1,000-rpm interval from the low setting of 8,000 rpm to the high setting of 11,000 rpm in 11 of these patients.

RESULTS

Receiver operating characteristic curves and stepwise logistic regression analyses showed that the best diagnostic parameters included changes in the LV end-diastolic diameter (<0.6 cm), aortic valve opening time (<80 msec), and deceleration time of mitral inflow (<70 msec) from lowest to highest pump speed. One parameter was predictive of pump malfunction, with 100% sensitivity and 89% specificity, whereas 2 of 3 parameters increased the sensitivity to 100% and specificity to 95%.

CONCLUSIONS

The 3 echocardiographic variables of measured changes in LV end-diastolic diameter, aortic valve opening time, and deceleration time of mitral inflow between the lowest (8,000 rpm) and highest pump speed settings (11,000 rpm) during echo-guided pump speed-change testing appear highly accurate in diagnosing device malfunction in the setting of pump thrombosis among patients supported with CF-LVAD. Further investigation is warranted to create and validate a prediction score.

Effect of delay in hospital presentation on clinical and imaging findings in acute pulmonary thromboembolism

BACKGROUND

There is limited information on the extent and clinical importance of the delay in hospital presentation of acute pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE).

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the delay in hospital presentation of PTE and its association with clinical and imaging findings in PTE.

METHODS

This prospective study was conducted on patients admitted to our hospital with a diagnosis of acute PTE between September 2007 and September 2011. Relationships between delay in hospital presentation and clinical findings, risk factors, imaging findings, and in-hospital mortality were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 195 patients enrolled, 84 (43.1%) patients presented 3 days after the onset of symptoms. Patients with chest pain, history of immobility for more than 3 days, recent surgery, and estrogen use had significantly less delayed presentation. Right ventricular dysfunction was significantly more frequent in patients with delayed presentation (odds ratio [OR] = 2.38; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.27-4.44; p = 0.006); however, no relationship was found between delay in presentation and pulmonary computed tomographic angiography or color Doppler sonography findings. Patients with delayed presentation were at higher risk of in-hospital mortality (OR = 4.32; 95% CI 1.12-16.49; p = 0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed that a significant portion of patients with acute PTE had delayed presentation. Also, patients with delayed presentation had worse echocardiographic findings and higher in-hospital mortality.

Echocardiographic reference ranges for normal cardiac chamber size: results from the NORRE study

AIMS

Availability of normative reference values for cardiac chamber quantitation is a prerequisite for accurate clinical application of echocardiography. In this study, we report normal reference ranges for cardiac chambers size obtained in a large group of healthy volunteers accounting for gender and age. Echocardiographic data were acquired using state-of-the-art cardiac ultrasound equipment following chamber quantitation protocols approved by the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging.

METHODS

A total of 734 (mean age: 45.8 ± 13.3 years) healthy volunteers (320 men and 414 women) were enrolled at 22 collaborating institutions of the Normal Reference Ranges for Echocardiography (NORRE) study. A comprehensive echocardiographic examination was performed on all subjects following pre-defined protocols. There were no gender differences in age or cholesterol levels. Compared with men, women had significantly smaller body surface areas, and lower blood pressure. Quality of echocardiographic data sets was good to excellent in the majority of patients. Upper and lower reference limits were higher in men than in women. The reference values varied with age. These age-related changes persisted for most parameters after normalization for the body surface area.

CONCLUSION

The NORRE study provides useful two-dimensional echocardiographic reference ranges for cardiac chamber quantification. These data highlight the need for body size normalization that should be performed together with age-and gender-specific assessment for the most echocardiographic parameters.

Effect of blood donation-mediated volume reduction on regional right ventricular deformation in healthy subjects

Strain (S) and strain rate (SR) are known to be altered in diseases associated with right ventricular (RV) pressure/volume overload and RV myocardial dysfunction; however determinants of S/SR are incompletely understood. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of blood donation-mediated volume reduction on regional RV deformation in healthy young adults. Study population was composed of 61 consecutive healthy subjects who were volunteers for blood donation. All underwent standard echocardiography and two-dimensional S and SR imaging by speckle tracking before and after 450 mL blood donation. We found no change in RV lateral wall SR in all three segments. However, the S in the apical and mid segments of the RV lateral wall immediately decreased after blood donation [-26.2 ± 3.3 vs. -23.2 ± 3.3 % (p < 0.0001) and -28.2 ± 3.4 vs. -27.1 ± 3.2 % (p = 0.009), respectively], whereas no change was observed in the basal segment. Moreover, changes in systolic S on the apical segment of the RV lateral wall before and after blood donation were significantly correlated with the changes in the RV size [end-diastolic area index, r = - 0.369 (p = 0.003) and end-systolic area index, r = - 0.319 (p = 0.012)] and changes in the stroke volume index [r = - 0.436 (p < 0.001)]. Blood donation-mediated volume reduction in healthy subjects caused a regional difference in RV longitudinal deformation with the lower mid and apical S that was related to parameters of volume load severity. However, RV systolic SR was found to be resistant to the effects of volume depletion.

Relationship between echocardiographic and magnetic resonance derived measures of right ventricular size and function in patients with pulmonary hypertension

BACKGROUND

Transthoracic echocardiographic (TTE) imaging is the mainstay of clinical practice for evaluating right ventricular (RV) size and function, but its accuracy in patients with pulmonary hypertension has not been well validated.

METHODS

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and TTE images were retrospectively reviewed in 40 consecutive patients with pulmonary hypertension. RV and left ventricular volumes and ejection fractions were calculated using MRI. TTE areas and indices of RV ejection fraction (RVEF) were compared.

RESULTS

The average age was 42 ± 12 years, with a majority of women (85%). There was a wide range of mean pulmonary arterial pressures (27-81 mm Hg) and RV end-diastolic volumes (111-576 mL), RVEFs (8%-67 %), and left ventricular ejection fractions (26%-72%) by MRI. There was a strong association between TTE and MRI-derived parameters: RV end-diastolic area (by TTE imaging) and RV end-diastolic volume (by MRI), R(2) = 0.78 (P < .001); RV fractional area change by TTE imaging and RVEF by MRI, R(2) = 0.76 (P < .001); and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion by TTE imaging and RVEF by MRI, R(2) = 0.64 (P < .001). By receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, an RV fractional area change < 25% provided excellent discrimination of moderate systolic dysfunction (RVEF < 35%), with an area under the curve of 0.97 (P < .001). An RV end-diastolic area index of 18 cm(2)/m(2) provided excellent discrimination for moderate RV enlargement (area under the curve, 0.89; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Echocardiographic estimates of RV volume (by RV end-diastolic area) and function (by RV fractional area change and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion) offer good approximations of RV size and function in patients with pulmonary hypertension and allow the accurate discrimination of normal from abnormal.

Prediction of 30-day heart failure-specific readmission risk by echocardiographic parameters

It is unknown whether echocardiographic morphologic and hemodynamic parameters have incremental value in predicting 30-day heart failure (HF)-specific readmission risk among patients admitted with HF. We performed a prospective cohort study of adult patients entering a transitional care program after HF hospitalization to assess the role of echocardiographic parameters in predicting 30-day HF-specific readmission risk. Patients were followed for at least 30 days postdischarge, and readmission outcomes were ascertained prospectively. A previously validated 30-day HF readmission score (Yale Center for Outcome Research and Evaluation [CORE]) was calculated using 20 clinical and pathology parameters. Atrial and ventricular morphologic and hemodynamic variables were obtained from the index hospitalization echocardiogram. A Cox proportional hazards model was used to identify variables associated with 30-day HF specific readmission risk. Among 283 patients (mean age 72 ± 14 years, 57% men, 54% ischemic HF, ejection fraction 35% ± 17%) who underwent echocardiography during index admission there were 46 HF specific readmissions. After risk adjustment, elevated echocardiographic right atrial pressure (RAP; hazard ratio [HR] 3.70, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.82 to 7.52, p <0.001), left ventricular filling pressures (HR 7.46, 95% CI 2.31 to 24.14, p = 0.001), and weight change during admission (HR 0.93, 95% CI 0.87 to 0.99, p = 0.02) were independently associated with 30-day HF-specific readmission risk. However, only elevated RAP and left ventricular filling pressure added incremental prognostic value to the Yale-CORE HF readmission score. An E/e' threshold of 23 identified a subgroup at highest risk of readmission and provided a net 29% reclassification improvement over the Yale-CORE HF readmission score (p = 0.005).

Prevalence and clinical correlates of right ventricular dysfunction in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HC) is a disease that mainly affects the left ventricle (LV), however recent studies have suggested that it can also be associated with right ventricular (RV) dysfunction. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of RV dysfunction in patients with HC and its relation with LV function and outcome. A total of 324 consecutive patients with HC who received care at Stanford Hospital from 1999 to 2012 were included in the study. A group of 99 prospectively recruited age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers were used as controls. RV function was quantified using the RV fractional area change, tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), and RV myocardial performance index (RVMPI). Compared with the controls, the patients with HC had a higher RVMPI (0.51 ± 0.18 vs 0.25 ± 0.06, p <0.001) and lower TAPSE (20 ± 3 vs 24 ± 4, p <0.001). RV dysfunction based on an RVMPI >0.4 and TAPSE <16 mm was found in 71% and 11% of the HC and control groups, respectively. Worst LV function and greater pulmonary pressures were independent correlates of RV dysfunction. At an average follow-up of 3.7 ± 2.3 years, 17 patients had died and 4 had undergone heart transplantation. LV ejection fraction <50% and TAPSE <16 mm were independent correlates of outcome (hazard ratio 3.98, 95% confidence interval 1.22 to 13.04, p = 0.02; and hazard ratio 3.66, 95% confidence interval 1.38 to 9.69, p = 0.009, respectively). In conclusion, RV dysfunction based on the RVMPI is common in patients with HC and more frequently observed in patients with LV dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension. RV dysfunction based on the TAPSE was independently associated with an increased likelihood of death or transplantation.

The role of isovolumic acceleration in predicting subclinical right and left ventricular systolic dysfunction in patient with metabolic syndrome

Objective:

The aim of this study was to assess subclinical left (LV) and right ventricular (RV) dysfunction novel load-independent isovolumic myocardial acceleration (IVA) derived from tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) in patient with metabolic syndrome (MetS).

Methods:

This study had an observational case-control design. The study included 133 subjects which were divided into two groups: 75 patients with MetS and 58 controls without MetS. MetS was defined by the presence of ≥3 criteria according to ATP-NCEP III guidelines. All the subjects underwent laboratory blood tests and complete conventional echocardiography and TDI. Student’s t, Mann-Whitney U, Pearson’s, and multiple regression analysis were used for statistical analysis.

Results:

There were no significant difference between two groups in terms of traditional echocardiographic parameters. The diastolic and global functions of both ventricles were significantly impaired in MetS group. The TDI-derived IVA of the LV and the RV was significantly lower in patients with MetS (3.2±0.9 vs. 4.0±1.4, p<0.001 and 2.6±0.7 vs. 3.1±0.9, p=0.001, respectively). Whereas, TDI derived systolic velocity (Sa), and peak myocardial velocity during isovolumic contraction (IVV) of both ventricles were similar between the two groups. In the multiple regression analysis, waist circumference and diastolic blood pressure were found to be an independent determinant of IVA of LV (β=-.223, 95% CI=-.034 -.002, p=0.004) and RV (β=-.527, 95% CI=-.085 -.020, p=0.002) respectively.

Conclusion:

MetS affects global, diastolic, and systolic functions of two ventricles. This disruption lead to decreased function of heart was related with raised risk factors of MetS

Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in Patients with Primary Sjögren's Syndrome

Introduction. Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is an autoimmune epithelitis. Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is an important and severe complication, which is encountered in many collagen tissue disorders. Early diagnostic strategies are required to define it at the asymptomatic stage. Doppler echocardiography is an important, noninvasive screening test for PAH diagnosis. Objective. The aim of this present study is to define the frequency of PAH in patients with pSS and to reveal correlations with laboratory and clinical findings. Material and Methods. A total of 47 patients, who were diagnosed with pSS according to American-European Study Group criteria were enrolled in the study. After all patients were evaluated clinically and by laboratory tests, Doppler echocardiography was performed in the cardiology outpatient clinic. Systolic pulmonary artery pressure (SPAP) >30 mm Hg values, which were measured at the resting state, were accepted as significant for PAH. Results. Forty-seven patients with pSS were included in the study. The mean age of patients was 48 years and the mean disease duration was 5.3 years. PAH was defined in 11 of the 47 patients (23.4%). The SPAP value was over 35 mm Hg in 5 out of 11 patients, whereas six patients had SPAP measuring 30–35 mm Hg. While pulmonary hypertension was related with earlier age and shorter duration of disease (P = 0.04), there was no statistically significant correlation between SPAP increase and clinical findings (P > 0.05). Conclusion. We have defined high PAH frequency in patients with pSS. Since there are different data in the literature, it is obvious that large scale, multicentre studies are required.

Pericardial effusions in pulmonary arterial hypertension: characteristics, prognosis, and role of drainage

BACKGROUND

The presence and size of a pericardial effusion in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and its association with outcome is unclear.

METHODS

In this single-center cohort study of 577 patients with group 1 PAH seen between January 1, 1995, and December 31, 2005, all patients underwent transthoracic echocardiography and were followed for ≥ 5 years. Echocardiography-guided pericardiocentesis was performed as needed.

RESULTS

Pericardial effusions on index echocardiography occurred in 150 patients (26%); 128 patients had small and 22 had moderate-sized or larger effusions. Most of the moderate or greater effusions occurred in patients who had connective tissue disease (82%). Mean right atrial pressure was 13.4 ± 4.4 mm Hg (no effusion), 15.1 ± 4.4 mm Hg (small effusion), and 17.0 ± 4.0 mm Hg (moderate or greater effusion) (P &lt; .0001). Median survival for patients with moderate or greater effusion, mild effusion, or no effusion was 11.3 months, 42.3 months, and 76.5 months, respectively. Four of the 22 patients with moderate or greater pericardial effusions eventually required echocardiography-guided pericardiocentesis because of clinical and echocardiographic evidence of hemodynamic impact. When drained, the effusions were large (858 ± 469 mL) and generally serous. All pericardiocenteses were performed cautiously under echocardiographic guidance by a highly experienced echocardiologist, with low immediate morbidity and mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Pericardial effusions are relatively common but rarely of hemodynamic significance in patients with PAH. However, even modest degrees of pericardial fluid are associated with a significant increase in mortality and appear to reflect the presence of associated collagen vascular disease and high right atrial pressure.

Prognostic value of echocardiography in normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism

OBJECTIVES

The goal of the study was to evaluate the prognostic value of echocardiographic indices of right ventricular dysfunction (RVD) for prediction of pulmonary embolism-related 30-day mortality or need for rescue thrombolysis in initially normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism (APE).

BACKGROUND

There is no generally accepted echocardiographic definition of RVD used for prognosis in APE.

METHODS

We studied the prognostic value of a set of echocardiographic parameters in 411 consecutive patients (234 women, age 64 ± 18 years) with APE hemodynamically stable at admission.

RESULTS

Thirty-day APE-related mortality was 3% (14 patients), all-cause mortality was 5% (21 patients). Nine patients received thrombolysis as a result of hemodynamic deterioration, and 7 of them survived. The clinical endpoint (CE), which included APE-related death or thrombolysis, occurred in 21 patients. At univariable Cox analysis, the hazard ratio (HR) for CE of the right ventricular (RV)/left ventricular (LV) ratio was 7.3 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.0 to 27.3; p = 0.003). However, multivariable analysis showed that tricuspid annulus plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) was the only independent predictor (HR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.54 to 0.7; p < 0.0001). Moreover, the area under the curve (AUC) in receiver-operating characteristic analysis for TAPSE (0.91, 95% CI: 0.856 to 0.935; p = 0.0001) in CE prediction was higher (p < 0.001) than AUC of RV/LV ratio (0.638, 95% CI: 0.589 to 0.686; p = 0.001). TAPSE ≤15 mm had a HR of 27.9 (95% CI: 6.2 to 124.6; p < 0.0001) and a positive predictive value (PPV) of 20.9% for CE with a 99% negative predictive value (NPV), whereas TAPSE ≤20 mm had a PPV of 9.2 with a 100% NPV. RV/LV ratios of >0.9 and >1.0 had a PPV of 13.2% and 14.4% and a NPV of 97% and 94.3%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

TAPSE is preferable to the RV/LV ratio for risk stratification in initially normotensive patients with APE. TAPSE ≤15 mm identifies patients with an increased risk of 30-day APE-related mortality, whereas TAPSE >20 mm can be used for identification of a very low-risk group.

Prognostic Value of Preoperative Right Ventricular Geometry and Tricuspid Valve Tethering Area in Patients Undergoing Tricuspid Annuloplasty

Background—

Patients who undergo tricuspid annuloplasty during left-side heart valve surgery have a poor postoperative clinical outcome. However, preoperative right ventricular (RV) echocardiography parameters that predict adverse events in these patients are poorly understood.

Methods and Results—

We studied 74 patients (age, 58±10 years; men, 27%) with significant tricuspid regurgitation who consequently underwent tricuspid annuloplasty during left-side heart valve surgery. A total of 26 adverse events (22 heart failures and 4 cardiovascular deaths) occurred during a median follow-up of 26 months. RV midcavity diameter (hazard ratio=2.44; 95% confidence interval=1.48–4.02; P <0.01), RV longitudinal dimension (hazard ratio=1.64; 95% confidence interval=1.10–2.45; P =0.02), and tricuspid valve tethering area (hazard ratio=3.25; 95% confidence interval=1.71–6.19; P <0.01) were independently associated with adverse events after adjustment for age and New York Heart Association class III/IV. Receiver-operator characteristic curve analysis demonstrated that RV midcavity diameter (area under the curve=0.74; P <0.01) and tricuspid valve tethering area (area under the curve=0.70; P =0.04) were most associated with adverse events at the 1-year follow-up. The presence of either a large RV midcavity diameter or tricuspid valve tethering area was predictive of adverse outcome at 1 year after tricuspid annuloplasty.

Conclusions—

The present study demonstrates that RV geometry dimensions, namely RV midcavity diameter and tricuspid valve tethering area, are important preoperative measures associated with adverse events in patients undergoing tricuspid annuloplasty.

Cardiac structure and function in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: baseline findings from the echocardiographic study of the Treatment of Preserved Cardiac Function Heart Failure with an Aldosterone Antagonist trial

BACKGROUND

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Existing data on cardiac structure and function in HFpEF suggest significant heterogeneity in this population.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Echocardiograms were obtained from 935 patients with HFpEF (left ventricular ejection fraction ≥45%) enrolled in the Treatment of Preserved Cardiac Function Heart Failure with an Aldosterone Antagonist (TOPCAT) trial before initiation of randomized therapy. Average age was 70±10 years, 49% were women, 14% were of African descent, and comorbidities were highly prevalent. Centralized quantitative analysis in a blinded core laboratory demonstrated a mean left ventricular ejection fraction of 59.3±7.9%, with prevalent concentric left ventricular remodeling (34%) and hypertrophy (43%), and left atrial enlargement (53%). Diastolic dysfunction was present in 66% of gradable participants and was significantly associated with greater left ventricular hypertrophy and a higher prevalence of left atrial enlargement. Doppler evidence of pulmonary hypertension was present in 36%. At least 1 measure of structural heart disease was present in 93% of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients enrolled in TOPCAT demonstrated heterogeneous patterns of ventricular remodeling, with high prevalence of structural heart disease, including left ventricular hypertrophy and left atrial enlargement, in addition to pulmonary hypertension, each of which has been associated with adverse outcomes in HFpEF. Diastolic function was normal in approximately one third of gradable participants, highlighting the heterogeneity of the cardiac phenotype in this syndrome. These findings deepen our understanding of the TOPCAT trial population and expand our knowledge of the diversity of the cardiac phenotype in HFpEF.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00094302.

Hemodynamic impact and outcome of permanent pacemaker implantation following transcatheter aortic valve implantation

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) frequently requires postprocedural permanent pacemaker (PPM) implantation. We evaluated clinical and hemodynamic impact of PPM after TAVI. Clinical and echocardiographic data were retrospectively analyzed in 230 consecutive patients who underwent TAVI and echocardiography at baseline and after 6 months. Echocardiographic parameters included left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), left ventricular (LV) stroke volume, early mitral velocity/annulus velocity ratio (E/e'), right ventricular index of myocardial performance, systolic pulmonary artery pressure (SPAP), and aortic, mitral, and tricuspid regurgitation grades. Clinical outcomes included 2-year survival and cardiovascular and PPM-related event-free survival. The Medtronic CoreValve and Edwards Sapien prosthesis were used in 201 and 29 patients, respectively. PPM was required in 58 patients (25.4%). Two-year and event-free survival rates were similar between patients with and without PPM. At 6 months, patients with PPM demonstrated attenuated improvement in LVEF (-0.9 ± 8.7% vs 2.3 ± 10.8%, respectively, p = 0.03) and LV stroke volume (-2 ± 16 vs 4 ± 10 ml/m(2), respectively, p = 0.015), a trend toward smaller reduction in systolic pulmonary artery pressure (-1 ± 12 vs -6 ± 10 mm Hg, respectively, p = 0.09), and deterioration of right ventricular index of myocardial performance (-3 ± 17% vs 5 ± 26%, respectively, p = 0.05). The differences in post-TAVI aortic, mitral, and tricuspid regurgitation grades were insignificant. In conclusion, PPM implantation after TAVI is associated with reduced LVEF and impaired LV unloading. However, this unfavorable hemodynamic response does not affect the 2-year clinical outcome. The maintenance of clinical benefit appears to be driven by TAVI-related recovery of LV and right ventricular performance that mitigates unfavorable impact of PPM.