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Oligometastatic Breast Cancer Patients Treated with High-Dose Chemotherapy and Targeted Radiation: Long-Term Follow-Up of a Phase II Trial. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14205000. [PMID: 36291784 PMCID: PMC9599732 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14205000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Based on recent clinical trials, radiation is a standard treatment option for limited metastatic sites in metastatic breast cancer, with the potential to improve survival. This is typically given in the form of high-dose radiation called stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT). However, SBRT is a newer technology that is not on option for all patients and does not have long-term follow-up. Prior to the widespread implementation of SBRT, we performed a clinical trial utilizing high-dose chemotherapy and standard radiation for metastases in patients with limited metastatic breast cancer. In this research, we analyzed the long-term outcomes of these patients. We found that, despite not using SBRT, radiation provided promising long-term disease control and survival. Therefore, conventional radiation might still be considered if SBRT in not an option for a patient, and our results also help suggest what long-term outcomes of SBRT treatment might look like. Abstract Background: Patients with oligometastatic breast cancer (oMBC) may benefit from aggressive local therapy. We sought to assess the effects of consolidative radiation therapy (RT) on outcomes in oMBC patients treated on a prospective phase II trial of high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT). Methods: Between 2005 and 2009, 12 patients with oMBC (≤3 metastatic sites) cancer were treated on protocol. Patients were to receive tandem HDCT supported by hematopoietic cell rescue (HCR). All radiographically identifiable oligometastatic sites received targeted radiation. Results: HDCT was initiated at a median of 6.7 (3.5–12.7) months after diagnosis of oMBC. Hormone receptors (HR) were positive in 91.6% of patients, and HER2 was overexpressed in 25% of patients. Median radiation dose (EQD2) was 41.2 (37.9–48.7) Gy. Median follow-up was 13.1 (6.8–15.1) years for living patients. Ten-year PFS and OS were 33% (95%CI, 10–59%) and 55% (95%CI, 22–79%), respectively. Durable local control of treated lesions was 87.5%. At the last follow up, two patients remained progression free and two more were without evidence of disease following additional salvage treatment. Conclusions: Although modern systemic therapies have obviated the use of HDC, aggressive local therapy warrants further evaluation and fractionated radiotherapy is a viable alternative if SBRT is not available.
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Rossi S, Schinzari G, Basso M, Strippoli A, Dadduzio V, D'Argento E, Cassano A, Barone C. Maintenance hormonal and chemotherapy treatment in metastatic breast cancer: a systematic review. Future Oncol 2016; 12:1299-307. [PMID: 26996100 DOI: 10.2217/fon-2015-0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Endocrine treatment is the first-line therapy in hormone-sensitive metastatic breast cancer while chemotherapy is the first option in tumors refractory to endocrine therapy and in hormone-negative disease. Optimal duration, efficacy and safety of a maintenance endocrine therapy or chemotherapy after an induction treatment are still a matter of debate. We performed a literature review to identify studies regarding maintenance hormonal and chemotherapy treatments in metastatic breast cancer. We analyzed data relating to efficacy (improvement of progression-free survival and overall survival) and safety (symptoms relief and quality of life [QoL]). Maintenance endocrine therapy could prolong progression-free survival with a better control of symptoms and improving QoL. Maintenance chemotherapy prolong the response to a previous treatment, worsening the QoL, except for metronomic capecitabine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Rossi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Schinzari
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Michele Basso
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonia Strippoli
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Dadduzio
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Ettore D'Argento
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Cassano
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Carlo Barone
- Department of Medical Oncology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Largo A Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
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Pedrazzoli P, Tarenzi E, Tullio C, Colosini G, Siena S. High Dose Chemotherapy and Hematopoietic Progenitor Cell Transplantation for Breast Cancer. J Chemother 2013; 16 Suppl 4:108-11. [PMID: 15688624 DOI: 10.1179/joc.2004.16.supplement-1.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Nowhere has there been more controversy in recent years than in the use of high dose chemotherapy (HDC) with autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for breast cancer, both in the adjuvant setting and for advanced disease. Authors review and comment on the data from the studies so far reported and try to indicate what will be next in this field. They also discuss what may be the attitude to take in our everyday clinical practice, taking into account the availability of new chemotherapeutic agents and targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Pedrazzoli
- SC Oncologia Medica Falck, Dipartimento Oncologico, Ospedale Niguarda Ca' Granda, 1-20162 Milano, Italy.
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Reyal F, Hajage D, Savignoni A, Feron JG, Bollet MA, Kirova Y, Fourquet A, Pierga JY, Cottu P, Dieras V, Fourchotte V, Laki F, Alran S, Asselain B, Vincent-Salomon A, Sigal-Zafrani B, Sastre-Garau X. Long-term prognostic performance of Ki67 rate in early stage, pT1-pT2, pN0, invasive breast carcinoma. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55901. [PMID: 23526930 PMCID: PMC3602517 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Molecular signatures may become of use in clinical practice to assess the prognosis of breast cancers. However, although international consensus conferences sustain the use of these new markers in the near future, concerns remain about their degree of discordance and cost-effectiveness in different international settings. The present study aims to validate Ki67 as prognostic factor in a large cohort of early-stage (pT1-pT2, pN0) breast cancer patients. METHODS 456 patients treated in 1995-1996 were identified in the Institut Curie database. Ki67 (MIB1) was retrospectively assessed by immunohistochemistry for all cases. The prognostic value of this index was compared to that of histological grade (HG), Estrogen receptor (ER) and HER2 status. Distant disease free interval, loco-regional recurrence, time-lapse from first metastatic diagnosis to death were analyzed. RESULTS All 456 patients were treated by lumpectomy plus axillary dissection and radiotherapy. 27 patients (5.9%) received systemic treatment. Tumors were classified as HG1 in 35%, HG2 in 42% and HG3 in 23% of cases. ER was expressed in 86% of the tumors, HER2 in 5% and 14% were triple negative. The median follow-up was 151 [5-191] months. Distant and loco-regional disease recurrences were observed in 16% and 18%, respectively. High (>20%) Ki67 rate [HR = 3 (1.8-4.8), p<10e-06] and HG3 [HR = 4.4 (2.2-8.6), p = 0.00002] were associated with an increased rate of distant relapse. In multivariate analysis, the Ki67 remained the only significant prognostic factor in the subgroups of ER positive HER2 negative [HR = 2.6 (1.5-4.6), p = 0.0006] and ER positive HER2 negative HG2 tumors [HR = 2.2 (1.01-4.8), p = 0.04]. CONCLUSIONS We validate the prognosis value of the Ki67 rate in small size node negative breast cancer. We conclude that Ki67 is a potential cost-effective decision marker for adjuvant therapy in early-stage HG2, pT1-pT2, pN0, breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Reyal
- Department of Surgery, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - David Hajage
- Department of Biostatistic, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | - Youlia Kirova
- Départment of Radiation Oncology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Alain Fourquet
- Départment of Radiation Oncology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | | | - Paul Cottu
- Département of Medical Oncology, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Fatima Laki
- Department of Surgery, Institut Curie, Paris, France
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Martino M, Ballestrero A, Zambelli A, Secondino S, Aieta M, Bengala C, Liberati AM, Zamagni C, Musso M, Aglietta M, Schiavo R, Castagna L, Rosti G, Bruno B, Pedrazzoli P. Long-term survival in patients with metastatic breast cancer receiving intensified chemotherapy and stem cell rescue: data from the Italian registry. Bone Marrow Transplant 2012; 48:414-8. [PMID: 22863724 DOI: 10.1038/bmt.2012.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The median survival of women with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) is 18-24 months, and fewer than 5% are alive and disease free at 5 years. We report toxicity and survival in a cohort of MBC patients receiving high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) with autologous hematopoietic SCT (AHSCT) in Italy between 1990 and 2005. Data set for survival analysis has been obtained for 415 patients. Clinical parameters including probability of transplant-related mortality (TRM), PFS and OS. With a median follow-up of 27 months (range 0-172), OS and PFS at 5 and 10 years in the whole population were 47/23 and 32/14%, respectively. A total 239 patients are alive with a median follow-up of 33 months (range 2-174). Survival was significantly more pronounced in patients harboring hormone receptor positive tumors (P=0.028), without visceral metastases (P=0.009) and in women with chemosensitive disease (P<0.0001). Sixty eight patients (20.4%) who received HDC in partial response, stable or progressive disease underwent conversion to CR. TRM was 2.5% overall and 1.3% since 2000. Our findings suggest that could be a role for HDC and AHSCT in delaying disease progression and possibly cure a subset of MBC patient harboring chemosensitive tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Martino
- Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplant Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera BMM, Reggio Calabria, Italy.
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von Drygalski A, Tran TB, Messer K, Pu M, Corringham S, Nelson C, Ball ED. Obesity is an independent predictor of poor survival in metastatic breast cancer: retrospective analysis of a patient cohort whose treatment included high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell support. Int J Breast Cancer 2011; 2011:523276. [PMID: 22295228 PMCID: PMC3262587 DOI: 10.4061/2011/523276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to identify predictors of long-term survival in metastatic breast cancer (MBC). A cohort of 96 patients, who received high-dose chemotherapy with autologous stem cell support (HD-ASCT) as part of their treatment, was analyzed. Percent long-term survival at 10 years was 24.5% (CI 17.2-34.9%) when metastasis was diagnosed and 14.4% (CI 8.7-23.9%) when MBC was diagnosed. Survival was impacted significantly by body mass index (BMI). Median overall survival from initial diagnosis or from time of metastasis for patients with BMIs ≤30 and >30 (obese) was 7.1 (CI 4.4-8.7) and 3.2 years (2.41-6.75), respectively, or 3.2 or 2.3 years (all P = 0.02). Also, obesity was the only independent patient-related predictor of time to metastasis and of survival. While obesity is linked with poor outcomes in earlier stages of breast cancer, this has not been previously reported for MBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. von Drygalski
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
- Moores Cancer Center, 3855 Health Sciences Drive, La Jolla, Ca 92093-0829, USA
| | - T. B. Tran
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
| | - K. Messer
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
| | - M. Pu
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
| | - S. Corringham
- Division of Bone and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
| | - C. Nelson
- Division of Bone and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
| | - E. D. Ball
- Division of Bone and Marrow Transplantation, Department of Medicine, UCSD, CA 92093, USA
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Ixabepilone plus capecitabine in metastatic breast cancer patients with reduced performance status previously treated with anthracyclines and taxanes: a pooled analysis by performance status of efficacy and safety data from 2 phase III studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2010; 125:755-65. [PMID: 21128114 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-010-1251-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2010] [Accepted: 10/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) previously treated with anthracyclines and taxanes often have decreased performance status secondary to extensive tumor involvement. Here, we report the pooled analysis of efficacy and safety data from two similarly designed phase III studies to provide a more precise estimate of benefit of ixabepilone plus capecitabine in MBC patients with Karnofsky's performance status (KPS) 70-80. Across the studies, anthracycline/taxane-pretreated MBC patients were randomized to receive ixabepilone plus capecitabine or capecitabine alone. Individual patient data for KPS 70-80 subset (n = 606) or KPS 90-100 subset (n = 1349) from the two studies were pooled by treatment. Analysis included overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), objective response rate (ORR), and safety. In patients with reduced performance status (KPS 70-80), ixabepilone plus capecitabine was associated with improvements in OS (median: 12.3 vs. 9.5 months; HR, 0.75; P = 0.0015), PFS (median: 4.6 vs. 3.1 months; HR, 0.76; P = 0.0021) and ORR (35 vs. 19%) over capecitabine alone. Corresponding results in patients with high performance status (KPS 90-100) were median OS of 16.7 versus 16.2 months (HR, 0.98; P = 0.8111), median PFS of 6.0 versus 4.4 months (HR, 0.58; P = 0.0009), and ORR of 45 versus 28%. The safety profile of combination therapy was similar between the subgroups. Ixabepilone plus capecitabine appeared to show superior efficacy compared to capecitabine alone in MBC patients previously treated with anthracyclines and taxanes, regardless of performance status, with a possible OS benefit favoring KPS 70-80 patients (ClinicalTrials.gov identifiers: NCT00080301 and NCT00082433).
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8
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High-dose chemotherapy for high-risk primary and metastatic breast cancer: is another look warranted? Curr Opin Oncol 2009; 21:150-7. [DOI: 10.1097/cco.0b013e328324f48b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Jakobs TF, Hoffmann RT, Schrader A, Stemmler HJ, Trumm C, Lubienski A, Murthy R, Helmberger TK, Reiser MF. CT-guided radiofrequency ablation in patients with hepatic metastases from breast cancer. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2008; 32:38-46. [PMID: 18575933 DOI: 10.1007/s00270-008-9384-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2008] [Revised: 05/27/2008] [Accepted: 06/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate technical success, technique effectiveness, and survival following radiofrequency ablation for breast cancer liver metastases and to determine prognostic factors. Forty-three patients with 111 breast cancer liver metastases underwent CT-guided percutaneous radiofrequency (RF) ablation. Technical success and technique effectiveness was evaluated by performing serial CT scans. We assessed the prognostic value of hormone receptor status, overexpression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and presence of extrahepatic tumor spread. Survival rates were calculated using the Kaplan-Meier method. Technical success was achieved in 107 metastases (96%). Primary technique effectiveness was 96%. During follow-up local tumor progression was observed in 15 metastases, representing a secondary technique effectiveness of 86.5%. The overall time to progression to the liver was 10.5 months. The estimated overall median survival was 58.6 months. There was no significant difference in terms of survival probability with respect to hormone receptor status, HER2 overexpression, and presence of isolated bone metastases. Survival was significantly lower among patients with extrahepatic disease, with the exception of skeletal metastases. We conclude that CT-guided RF ablation of liver metastases from breast cancer can be performed with a high degree of technical success and technique effectiveness, providing promising survival rates in patients with no visceral extrahepatic disease. Solitary bone metastases did not negatively affect survival probability after RF ablation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias F Jakobs
- Department of Radiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Campus Grosshadern, Munich, Germany.
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Jakobs TF, Hoffmann RT, Fischer T, Stemmler HJ, Tatsch K, La Fougere C, Murthy R, Reiser MF, Helmberger TK. Radioembolization in patients with hepatic metastases from breast cancer. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008; 19:683-90. [PMID: 18440456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvir.2008.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the safety of and survival outcomes associated with single-session, whole-liver radioembolization with Yttrium-90 (90Y)-labelled resin microspheres in patients with nonresectable liver metastases from breast cancer that were refractory to other treatments. MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty patients underwent radioembolization with 90Y-labeled resin microspheres infusion in a single-session, whole-liver treatment. All patients had undergone polychemotherapy regimens including at least anthracyclines and taxanes, hormonal therapy, and trastuzumab where applicable. Follow-up data were available for 23 patients. After treatment, the authors assessed tumor response with computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging by using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST), laboratory and clinical toxicities, and survival. RESULTS A mean activity of 1.9 GBq of 90Y was delivered. Follow-up at a median of 4.2 months demonstrated partial response, stable disease, and progressive disease in 61%, 35%, and 4% of patients, respectively. With respect to tumor diameters, imaging revealed a maximum and minimum response of -64.8% to +23.6%, respectively (mean, 29.2%; median, 39.7%). The median follow-up time was 14.2 months. The median overall survival was 11.7 months. The median survival of responders and nonresponders was 23.6 and 5.7 months, respectively, and the median survival of patients with and patients without extrahepatic disease was 9.6 and 16 months. Clinically significant toxicities with the appearance of increasing transaminase level, increasing bilirubin level, nausea and vomiting, gastric ulcers, and ascites occurred in eight of 30 patients. One patient's death was attributed to treatment-related hepatic toxicity. CONCLUSIONS Single-session, whole-liver 90Y radioembolization can be performed with an acceptable toxicity profile in patients with liver metastases from breast cancer. Response to radioembolization in these patients is supported by the decrease in tumor size. Further investigation is warranted to prove survival benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias F Jakobs
- Department of Radiology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Campus Grosshadern, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377 Munich, Germany.
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Crump M, Gluck S, Tu D, Stewart D, Levine M, Kirkbride P, Dancey J, O'Reilly S, Shore T, Couban S, Girouard C, Marlin S, Shepherd L, Pritchard KI. Randomized trial of high-dose chemotherapy with autologous peripheral-blood stem-cell support compared with standard-dose chemotherapy in women with metastatic breast cancer: NCIC MA.16. J Clin Oncol 2007; 26:37-43. [PMID: 18025439 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2007.11.8851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE We conducted a multicenter, randomized trial to compare progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and quality of life in women with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) receiving high-dose chemotherapy plus autologous stem-cell transplantation (ASCT; HDCT) compared with standard-dose therapy. PATIENT AND METHODS Between April 1997 and December 2000, 386 women with MBC and no prior chemotherapy for metastatic disease were registered. After initial response to anthracycline- or taxane-based induction chemotherapy, 224 patients were randomly assigned: 112 to high-dose cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone, and carboplatin chemotherapy and ASCT (HDCT), and 112 to standard therapy (ST). Median age was 47 years (range, 25 to 67 years). Thirty two percent of women randomly assigned had estrogen and progesterone receptor-negative breast cancer, 42% had visceral metastases, and 58% had bone metastases. Complete remission rates before random assignment were 11% for those receiving HDCT and 12% for those receiving ST. RESULTS After a median follow-up of 48 months, 79 deaths were observed in the HDCT arm and 77 deaths were observed in the ST arm; seven patients (6%) in the HDCT arm died as a result of toxicity. The median OS was 24 months for the HDCT arm (95% CI, 21 to 35 months) and 28 months for ST (95% CI, 22 to 33 months; hazard ratio [HR], 0.9; 95% CI, 0.6 to 1.2; P = .43). PFS was 11 months for HDCT and 9 months for ST (HR, 0.6 in favor of HDCT; 95% CI, 0.5 to 0.9; P = .006). CONCLUSION HDCT did not improve OS in women with MBC when used as consolidation after response to induction chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Crump
- National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
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Kurian S, Qazilbash M, Fay J, Wolff S, Herzig R, Hobbs G, Bunner P, Weisenborn R, Aya-Ay M, Lynch J, Ericson S. Complete response after high-dose chemotherapy and autologous hemopoietic stem cell transplatation in metastatic breast cancer results in survival benefit. Breast J 2007; 12:531-5. [PMID: 17238982 DOI: 10.1111/j.1524-4741.2006.00341.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Metastatic breast cancer is an incurable disease even with high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) and autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (ASCT). Even though phase III studies have not shown a survival advantage for this group as a whole, it is possible that a small subset of patients may benefit from HDC/ASCT with careful patient selection. A total of 198 patients from three different institutions were treated with HDC/ASCT. After complete staging, patients with central nervous system or bone marrow involvement were excluded. The HDC regimen consisted of: Carboplatin 600 mg/m(2) IV infusion over 48 hours, Thiotepa 300 mg/m(2) IV infusion over 2 hours, and Cytoxan 60 mg/kg IV infusion given over 2 hours x3 days. The median age at the time of transplant was 46 (24-62) years and median follow-up was 20 months. Hormone receptor status was known in 148 patients, of whom 84 had estrogen receptor (ER) and/or progestrone receptor (PgR)-positive tumors. Eighty patients had no evidence of disease at the time of HDC/ASCT (CR1). At the completion of HDC and ASCT, complete responses (CR) were seen in an additional 57 patients (CR2). Using Kaplan-Meier analysis, the median relapse-free survival (RFS) for the entire group was 15 months and overall survival (OS) was 27 months. The patients in CR1 had a median RFS and OS of 20.7 and 50.6 months, respectively. This was very similar to the RFS and OS in patients achieving CR2 after HDC/ASCT (p < 0.001; median: 19 and 40 months, respectively). In contrast, the patients with persistent residual disease had an RFS and OS of 7 and 12 months (p < 0.001). These data show that patients achieving a CR after HDC/ASCT have a better relapse-free and OS, when compared to patients with persistent residual disease after HDC/ASCT. This study suggests that a subset of patients with residual metastatic breast cancer after standard chemotherapy can achieve CR with HDC and ASCT which may result in better long-term outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sobha Kurian
- West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, USA.
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Kröger N, Frick M, Gluz O, Mohrmann S, Metzner B, Jackisch C, Ko Y, Lindemann HW, Meier CR, Lohrmann HP, Ruffert U, Hänel M, Bodenstein H, Neubauer A, Ehninger G, Wolf HH, Kolbe K, Burock K, Zander AR, Nitz U. Randomized trial of single compared with tandem high-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients with chemotherapy-sensitive metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24:3919-26. [PMID: 16921043 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2005.04.0352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare progression-free survival between single and tandem high-dose chemotherapy (HDT) followed by autologous stem-cell transplantation in chemotherapy-sensitive metastatic breast cancer patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS Between February 1997 and June 2001, 187 patients with complete and partial remission were randomly assigned to receive either one or two cycles of HDT, consisting of thiotepa (125 mg/m2/d for 4 days), cyclophosphamide (1,500 mg/m2/d for 4 days), and carboplatin (200 mg/m2/d for 4 days), followed by autologous stem-cell transplantation. RESULTS One hundred seventy one of 187 randomly assigned patients completed first HDT, but only 52 of 85 completed the second HDT cycle in the tandem HDT arm. The rate of complete remission on an intent-to-treat-basis was 33% in the single-dose HDT arm and 37% in the tandem HDT arm (P = .48). The median progression-free survival times in single and tandem HDT arms were 9.4 and 11.2 months, respectively (one-sided P = .06; two one-sided P = .12), whereas median overall survival time tended to be greater after single versus tandem HDT (29 v 23.5 months, respectively; P = .4). In a multivariate analysis for progression-free survival, tandem HDT (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.71; 95% CI, 0.52 to 0.98; P = .03) and achievement of complete remission after induction chemotherapy (HR = 0.59; 95% CI, 0.37 to 0.96; P = .03) were factors for a better progression-free survival, whereas the factor of three or more sites of metastases (HR = 1.66; 95% CI, 1.12 to 2.47; P = .01) was associated with a worse progression-free survival. CONCLUSION Despite a trend of improved progression-free survival, tandem HDT cannot be recommended for patients with chemotherapy-sensitive metastatic breast cancer because of a trend for shorter overall survival and higher toxicity compared with single HDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolaus Kröger
- Bone Marrow Transplantation, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
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Vredenburgh JJ, Madan B, Coniglio D, Ross M, Broadwater G, Niedzwiecki D, Edwards J, Marks L, Vandemark R, McDonald C, Affronti ML, Peters WP. A randomized phase III comparative trial of immediate consolidation with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous peripheral blood progenitor cell support compared to observation with delayed consolidation in women with metastatic breast cancer and only bone metastases following intensive induction chemotherapy. Bone Marrow Transplant 2006; 37:1009-15. [PMID: 16633363 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1705367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The prognosis for patients with metastatic breast cancer remains poor. Metastatic breast cancer confined to the bones may have a better prognosis, especially hormone receptor-positive disease. We performed a prospective, randomized clinical trial to compare immediate consolidation with high-dose chemotherapy and hematopoietic support versus observation with high-dose consolidation at the time of disease progression in women with metastatic breast cancer and only bone metastases. The patients received chemotherapy with doxorubicin, 5-fluorouracil and methotrexate before randomization. In all, 85 patients were enrolled and 69 were randomized. The median follow-up is 8.1 years from randomization. The median event-free survival (EFS) for the immediate transplant arm is 12 months and for the observation arm is 4.3 months (P<0.0001). The median overall survival for the immediate transplant arm is 2.97 years and for the observation arm 1.81 years, a difference that is not statistically significant. Immediate high-dose chemotherapy and radiation therapy as consolidation offers a clinically and statistically significant improvement in EFS compared with radiation therapy alone following induction chemotherapy for women with metastatic breast cancer confined to the bones.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Vredenburgh
- Division of Medical Oncology/Transplantation, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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15
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Nieto Y, Shpall EJ, Bearman SI, Jones RB. Evaluation of the effect of age on treatment-related mortality and relapse in patients with high-risk primary breast cancer receiving high-dose chemotherapy. Am J Clin Oncol 2005; 28:248-54. [PMID: 15923796 DOI: 10.1097/01.coc.0000145349.12537.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
There are contradictory results regarding a potential increased responsiveness of younger women with high-risk primary breast cancer to high-dose compared with standard-dose chemotherapy. Observations from some, but not all, randomized trials, suggest that the potential benefit of high-dose treatment may be limited to younger patients. We analyzed, at median follow-up of 8 years, the prognostic effect of age in 264 patients enrolled in prospective phase II and III trials of high-dose chemotherapy, using a uniform regimen. Median age was 49 (range, 36-71). Among patients < or = 49 and > 49 years of age, the relapse rates were 27% and 25%, respectively (P = 0.7). In those age groups, the transplant-related mortality rates were 6.5% and 4%, respectively (P = 0.8). No age differences were observed between patients surviving transplant (median age 49) and those who experienced transplant-related mortality (median 47.5) (P = 0.9). Event-free survival (P = 0.3) and overall survival (P = 0.4) did not differ between patients < or = 49 and > 49 years of age. In conclusion, we did not detect a detrimental effect of older age on transplant-related mortality or relapse after high-dose chemotherapy for high-risk primary breast cancer at long-term follow-up. The debate about the age effect in this population remains unsettled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yago Nieto
- University of Colorado Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Denver, CO, USA.
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16
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Sohn HJ, Kim SH, Lee GW, Kim S, Kang HJ, Ahn JH, Kim SB, Kim SW, Kim WK, Suh C. High-dose chemotherapy of cyclophosphamide, thiotepa, and carboplatin (CTCb) followed by autologous stem-cell transplantation for metastatic breast cancer patients: a 6-year follow-up result. Cancer Res Treat 2005; 37:24-30. [PMID: 19956506 PMCID: PMC2785419 DOI: 10.4143/crt.2005.37.1.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2004] [Accepted: 01/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The benefit of high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) for metastatic breast cancer (MBC) is controversial. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of HDC with cyclophosphamide, thiotepa, and carboplatin (CTCb) followed by autologous stem-cell transplantation (ASCT) for MBC patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS From September 1994 to December 1999, 23 MBC patients were enrolled. All the patients received 2 to 10 cycles of induction chemotherapy. Before transplantation, 12 patients were in complete response (CR), nine were in partial response (PR), and two had progressive disease (PD). The HDC regimen consisted of cyclophosphamide 1,500 mg/m(2)/day, thiotepa 125 mg/m(2)/day and carboplatin 200 mg/m(2)/day intravenously for 4 consecutive days. RESULTS After ASCT, 13 patients (56%) had a CR, five (22%) had a PR, three (13%) had no change, while two (9%) showed a PD. Seventeen patients relapsed or progressed during the median follow-up of 78 months. The median progression-free survival (PFS) time was 11 months and the median overall survival (OS) time was 23 months. The 5-year PFS and OS rates were 22% and 25%, respectively. On the multivariate analyses, less than 4 involved lymph nodes was predictive of a better PFS and OS. CONCLUSION HDC with CTCb for MBC has acceptable toxicity; however, this treatment does not show a survival benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Jung Sohn
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang-Hee Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Gyeong-Won Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, GyeongSang National University Hospital, Jinju, Korea
| | - Shin Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Jin Kang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin-Hee Ahn
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung-Bae Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang-We Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Woo Kun Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Cheolwon Suh
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
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17
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van Walraven C, Davis D, Forster AJ, Wells GA. Time-dependent bias was common in survival analyses published in leading clinical journals. J Clin Epidemiol 2004; 57:672-82. [PMID: 15358395 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2003.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/05/2003] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In survival analysis, "baseline immeasurable" time-dependent factors cannot be recorded at baseline, and change value after patient observation starts. Time-dependent bias can occur if such variables are not analyzed appropriately. This study sought to determine the prevalence of such time-dependent bias in highly-cited medical journals. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING We searched Medline databases to identify all observational studies that used a survival analysis in American Journal of Medicine, Annals of Internal Medicine, Archives of Internal Medicine, British Medical Journal, Chest, Circulation, Journal of the American Medical Association, Lancet, and New England Journal of Medicine between 1998 and 2002. Studies with "baseline immeasurable" time-dependent factors were susceptible to time-dependent bias if a time-dependent covariate analysis was not used. RESULTS Of 682 eligible studies, 127 (18.6%, 95% CI 15.8-21.8%) contained a "baseline immeasurable" time-dependent factor and 52 (7.6% [5.8-9.9%] of all survival analyses/40.9% [32.3-50.0%] of studies with a time-dependent factor) were susceptible to time-dependent bias. In 35 studies (5.1% [3.7-7.1%]/27.6% [20.5-35.9%]), the bias affected a variable highlighted in the study abstract and correction of the bias could have qualitatively changed the study's conclusion in over half of studies. CONCLUSION In medical journals, time-dependent bias is concerningly common and frequently affects key factors and the study's conclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl van Walraven
- Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa Hospital, Civic Campus, 1053 Carling Avenue, F-660, Ottawa, ON K1Y 4E9, Canada.
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18
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Stemmer SM, Hardan I, Brenner HJ, Rizel S. High-Dose Chemotherapy and Autologous Stem Cell Transplant in Women With De Novo Chemosensitive Metastatic Breast Cancer. Am J Clin Oncol 2004; 27:250-5. [PMID: 15170143 DOI: 10.1097/01.coc.0000093436.16710.e9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The prognosis of patients with de novo stage IV breast cancer seems to be similar to that of patients with metastatic disease. Because these patients have not been exposed to prior therapy, the use of high dose chemotherapy (HDCT) may be beneficial. Twenty-four newly diagnosed (median age 42) responding metastatic breast cancer patients underwent HDCT (Stamp V) and stem cell support as their initial treatment. The predominant sites of metastatic disease were bone (12), lung (5), liver (2), lymph nodes (6), marrow (4), and soft-tissue (1). Estrogen/progesterone receptors were positive in 35%, negative in 45%, and unknown in 20%. Before transplantation, 10 patients were in complete remission (CR), 6 were in partial remission (PR), and 8 were inevaluable. Radiotherapy was administered to sites of documented metastatic disease. Tamoxifen was given to patients with receptor positive and unknown tumor status. After a median follow-up of 60 months from diagnosis (range 42 to 96 months), 15 patients have relapsed and 10 died. Mean and median progression free survival from transplant are 53 (SE 6.6, CI 40-66) and 60 (SE 18, CI 25-96) months, respectively. The median survival has not yet been achieved (>6 years). There was no treatment-related mortality. The use of HDCT in patients with chemosensitive, de novo metastatic breast cancer is safe and well tolerated. Overall clinical outcome is good; however, this study cannot determine whether this was due to treatment or selection bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salomon M Stemmer
- Bone Marrow Transplant Service, Department of Oncology and Radiotherapy, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel.
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19
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Controversy has surrounded the use of high-dose chemotherapy for breast cancer for more than a decade. Numerous randomized trials have compared high-dose chemotherapy with standard-dose chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer and high-risk primary breast cancer, defined by extensive axillary node involvement or inflammatory disease. The authors review the main research results of high-dose chemotherapy for breast cancer in 2002 to 2003. RECENT FINDINGS Preliminary analyses of three randomized trials in metastatic breast cancer and seven in high-risk primary breast cancer have been reported during this period. An advantage in event-free survival has been observed in all three studies in metastatic disease and in four of the high-risk primary cancer trials, albeit with no impact on overall survival at short follow-up. These early results are consistent with the most recent Cochrane reviews, which included trials reported through mid 2002. SUMMARY An early event-free survival advantage is apparent in favor of high-dose chemotherapy in both high-risk primary and metastatic breast cancer. Longer follow-up of those and most other trials is required to detect translation of the event-free survival differences into benefits in overall survival. High-dose chemotherapy remains a valid research strategy in event-free survival and high-risk primary breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yago Nieto
- Blood and Marrow Transplant Program, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, 4200 East Ninth Avenue, B-190 Denver, CO 80262, USA.
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20
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Abstract
The preponderance of published medical literature and clinical guidelines compels the expansion of pharmaceutical use among Americans, at the same time that private and public health plans seek to restrict such use. The emerging collision course between the march of medical science and the countermarch of medical policy arises from diverging views about the optimal use of drugs and growing philosophical conflict over the abundance and inequities that characterize the U.S. health care system. The consequent turmoil in the market's approach to managing drug benefits can be remedied through adoption of a value-based (rather than price-based) approach to pharmaceutical spending.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Kleinke
- Health Strategies Network, Portland, Oregon, USA
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21
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Pedrazzoli P, Ferrante P, Kulekci A, Schiavo R, De Giorgi U, Carminati O, Marangolo M, Demirer T, Siena S, Rosti G. Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for breast cancer in Europe: critical evaluation of data from the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) Registry 1990-1999. Bone Marrow Transplant 2003; 32:489-94. [PMID: 12942095 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1704153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to identify trends in high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) with autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (ASCT) and to assess survival in a large cohort of breast cancer (BC) patients receiving this therapy in Europe from 1990 to 1999. A total of 7471 patients who received HDC with ASCT between January 1, 1990 and December 31, 1999 were reported to the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation Registry. Data required for demographics and survival analysis were available for 2679 patients with high-risk primary BC; 921 patients with inflammatory BC (IBC), and 2295 patients with metastatic disease. The main evaluation parameters were progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). Between 1990 and 1998, autotransplants for BC increased 30-fold. Significant trends included use of blood-derived rather than marrow-derived stem cells, increment of reporting centers and decrease of mortality within 100 days from transplantation. The 5-year PFS and OS probabilities were 53 and 68% for high-risk disease and 42 and 53% for IBC, respectively. For metastatic disease 5-year PFS and OS probabilities in the whole cohort were 18 and 27%, respectively, while for women transplanted in complete remission the 5-year PFS was 29%. In conclusion, HDC with ASCT has been increasingly used until 1998 and the 100-day mortality rate has been constantly less than 2% from 1995 to date. The 5-year survival of high-risk BC is related to the number of axillary nodes involved at surgery. Outcome of patients with IBC is encouraging, suggesting the need for randomized trials. Patients with metastatic disease responding to pretransplant chemotherapy and harboring ER+ tumors have a better outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Pedrazzoli
- S.C. Divisione di Oncologia Medica Falck, Ospedale Niguarda Ca' Granda, Milano, Italy.
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22
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Rizzo JD, Williams S, Wu JT, Pecora AL, Lazarus HM, Bolwell B, Fields KK, Gale RP, Elfenbein G, Horowitz MM, Antman KH. Syngeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for women with metastatic breast cancer. Bone Marrow Transplant 2003; 32:151-5. [PMID: 12838279 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1704120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Metastatic breast cancer has been a common indication for autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Previous reports indicate 3-year survival and progression-free survival (PFS) rates after autotransplant to be about 30 and 15%, respectively. Most deaths are from recurrent disease. One potential cause for high relapse rates is graft contamination with tumor. We describe 14 women with metastatic breast cancer transplanted between 1991 and 1998 with hematopoietic cells from identical twins. Median age was 41 y (range 34-50). Most women (12 of 14) were treated with mastectomy, and all received anthracycline-based regimens in their pretransplant course; nine women also received a taxane, seven radiotherapy and three hormonal therapy. Four women were in complete remission (one CR, three CRU) at transplant, five were in partial remission, two had stable disease and two had progressive disease. Eight women have died, one of treatment-related causes and seven of progressive breast cancer. Three-year survival was 48% (21-71%) and 3-year PFS was 21% (5-45%). Although the number of patients is small, outcomes for women transplanted with syngeneic grafts are similar to those of women receiving autologous grafts. This suggests that residual cancer in the patient is the major contributor to relapse after transplantation for breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Rizzo
- International Bone Marrow Transplant Registry, Health Policy Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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23
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Montemurro F, Rondón G, Munsell M, Smith TL, Donato ML, Gajewski JL, Rahman ZU, Buzdar AU, Champlin RE, Ueno NT. Predicting outcome based on Swenerton score in patients with metastatic breast cancer undergoing high-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: implications for patient selection. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2003; 9:330-40. [PMID: 12766883 DOI: 10.1016/s1083-8791(03)00088-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to study the effectiveness of the Swenerton score in assessing extent of disease as an independent prognostic and predictive factor in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) who receive high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) with autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant (AHSCT). Two-hundred thirty-two patients with MBC underwent HDCT. Extent of disease was assessed quantitatively using the Swenerton score. A retrospective analysis was performed using Cox proportional hazards regression and logistic regression models. One hundred three (44%) patients had a complete response (CR) after HDCT. Bone marrow as source of hematopoietic stem cells, hormone-receptor-negative status, and visceral involvement correlated with both worse overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS). Short disease-free interval, multiple sites of metastatic disease, and less than 50% reduction in the Swenerton Score during induction chemotherapy correlated with worse OS. Patients in CR at the time of HDCT had better PFS than patients in partial response, stable disease, or progressive disease. Fifty-six patients who underwent conversion to CR after HDCT had a similar median OS (not reached v 74 months; P =.51) and PFS duration (22 v 44 months; P =.15) as patients who received HDCT after a CR to standard-dose chemotherapy (SDCT). Conversion to CR was predicted by a >/=50% reduction in the Swenerton score during SDCT (odds ratio [OR] 3.32, P <.01) and soft-tissue disease (OR 4.08, P <.01). The presence of multiple metastatic sites predicted decreased probability of conversion to CR (OR 0.34, P <.01). The Swenerton score provides a thorough estimate of disease extent, and reduction of Swenerton score by SDCT is potentially useful for selecting the optimal candidates for HDCT trials who may achieve long-term disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Montemurro
- Department of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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24
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Tartarone A, Romano G, Galasso R, Iodice G, D'Arena G, Coccaro M, Bochicchio A, Sgambato A, Di Renzo N. Should we continue to study high-dose chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer patients? A critical review of the published data. Bone Marrow Transplant 2003; 31:525-30. [PMID: 12692616 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1703824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Data from eight randomised trials on high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) for metastatic breast cancer (MBC) have been published, but only seven studies are evaluable after the Bezwoda trial was discredited. Moreover, overall survival (OS) has been evaluated in only four out of seven studies since three had a crossover design. OS was similar for the HDC and standard-dose chemotherapy (SDC) group in the four evaluable trials, while disease-free survival (DFS) was improved in the HDC group in six of the seven trials. The delay in relapse for patients with metastatic disease represents an important clinical outcome; furthermore, since none of the reported studies randomised more than 220 patients, their statistical power may have been too limited to detect meaningful survival differences. Finally, preliminary experiences have shown that HDC seems to be the ideal platform upon which to build novel therapies. In conclusion, HDC remains an important field of clinical research for breast cancer patients with stage IV disease and, from the studies reported in this article, there is some evidence for offering this therapeutic modality to selected patients who are interested in a medically aggressive approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tartarone
- Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), Italy
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25
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Stadtmauer EA. High Dose Chemotherapy and Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation for Metastatic Breast Cancer: Is there a Place? Breast Cancer Res Treat 2003. [DOI: 10.1023/a:1026341512053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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26
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Morreim EH. A dose of our own medicine: alternative medicine, conventional medicine, and the standards of science. THE JOURNAL OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS : A JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS 2003; 31:222-235. [PMID: 12964266 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720x.2003.tb00083.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The discussion about complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is sometimes rather heated. “Quackery!” the cry goes. A large proportion “of unconventional practices entail theories that are patently unscientific.” “It is time for the scientific community to stop giving alternative medicine a free ride. There cannot be two kinds of medicine — conventional and alternative. There is only medicine that has been adequately tested and medicine that has not, medicine that works and medicine that may or may not work.” “I submit that if these treatments cannot withstand the test of empirical research, … then we have wasted a lot of time and effort. The time has been wasted on all the people who have spent years learning falsehoods about acupuncture points and the principles of homeopathy. And the patients have wasted their time, money, and efforts receiving treatments that were not what they were represented to be or were harmful.”
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Affiliation(s)
- E Haavi Morreim
- College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, USA
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27
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Schuster MW, Beveridge R, Frei-Lahr D, Abboud CN, Cruickshank S, Macri M, Menchaca D, Holden J, Waller EK. The effects of pegylated recombinant human megakaryocyte growth and development factor (PEG-rHuMGDF) on platelet recovery in breast cancer patients undergoing autologous bone marrow transplantation. Exp Hematol 2002; 30:1044-50. [PMID: 12225796 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-472x(02)00878-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the safety and efficacy of pegylated recombinant human megakaryocyte growth and development factor (PEG-rHuMGDF) administered after autologous bone marrow transplantation (ABMT). PATIENTS AND METHODS Two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies were done. In the phase 1/2 study, 75 breast cancer patients underwent a bone marrow harvest and myeloablative STAMP V chemotherapy and were randomized to receive placebo or one of three doses of PEG-rHuMGDF. In the phase 3 study, 64 patients were randomized to receive placebo or the minimally effective dose of PEG-rHuMGDF. The study drug was administered daily starting on the day of bone marrow infusion until the platelet count was greater than or equal to 50 x 10(9)/L (without transfusion) or for a maximum of 28 days. All patients received 10 microg/kg/day filgrastim starting on day 2 until neutrophil count recovery. RESULTS PEG-rHuMGDF appeared to be safe and well tolerated. No significant differences were noted in mortality or disease progression rates. Antibodies to MGDF were not observed. In the phase 1/2 study, the time to platelet recovery to greater than or equal to 20 x 10(9)/L and platelet transfusion requirements were significantly reduced for patients treated with PEG-rHuMGDF compared with placebo (p < 0.05). In the phase 3 study, no significant differences in the kinetics of early thrombopoiesis or platelet transfusions after ABMT were observed. CONCLUSIONS PEG-rHuMGDF was not consistently efficacious in reducing the duration of severe thrombocytopenia. The maximum platelet counts for PEG-rHuMGDF-treated patients occurred a median of 2 weeks after the last dose of drug, suggesting that the biologic effects of this hematopoietic cytokine are delayed compared with other hematopoietic cytokines.
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28
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Abstract
The first successful transplants of hematopoietic stem cells were done in 1968 in three children with congenital immune deficiency diseases. In each instance, stem cells were collected from the bone marrow of sibling donors who were genotypically HLA identical or closely HLA matched to the recipient. Since then, thousands of patients have received hematopoietic stem cell transplants to treat malignant and non-malignant diseases. Current estimates of annual numbers of stem cell transplants are about 50,000 worldwide, with growth at a rate of 10-15% per year. The reasons for increasing use include proven and potential efficacy in many diseases, better understanding of the appropriate timing of transplantation and patient selection, greater availability of donors and better techniques for determining HLA match, greater ease of stem cell collection, and improved supportive care resulting in less transplant-related morbidity and mortality. About two-thirds of hematopoietic stem cell transplants use autologous cells, generally collected from peripheral blood by leukapheresis. The remainder are allogeneic transplants, most commonly from HLA-identical sibling donors, and most often using cells collected directly from bone marrow.
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29
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Montemurro F, Rondón G, Ueno NT, Munsell M, Gajewski JL, Champlin RE. Factors affecting progression-free survival in hormone-dependent metastatic breast cancer patients receiving high-dose chemotherapy and hematopoietic progenitor cell transplantation: role of maintenance endocrine therapy. Bone Marrow Transplant 2002; 29:861-6. [PMID: 12058236 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1703555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2001] [Accepted: 02/26/2002] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We retrospectively analyzed the effect of maintenance endocrine therapy (MET) after high-dose chemotherapy with hematopoietic progenitor cell transplant (HDCT) on the progression-free survival (PFS) of patients with hormone-dependent metastatic breast cancer (MBC). One hundred and nine consecutive patients with estrogen receptor (ER) and/or progesterone receptor (PgR)-positive MBC, who were progression free for at least 4 months after HDCT with cyclophosphamide, carmustine and thiotepa (CBT), were analyzed. Of these, 55 were non-randomly submitted to MET. After a median follow-up of 34.4 months (17.1-91.0), univariate analysis showed that MET was significantly associated with improved median PFS (31.1 vs 19.2 months, P = 0.022). Complete response to HDCT, pattern of metastatic spread, extent of the disease, single vs multiple metastatic sites, prior endocrine therapy for metastatic disease and prior exposure to any hormonal therapy (adjuvant and/or for the advanced disease) were also associated with PFS at univariate analysis. A multivariate Cox proportional hazard model was fitted to the data in order to correct the effect of MET for the other significant covariates. After correcting for these covariates, MET was still significant, predicting improved PFS (hazard ratio (HR) 0.580, 95% CI; 0.362-0.931). Administration of MET after optimal cytoreduction might result in increased efficacy of HDCT in hormone-dependent metastatic breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Montemurro
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment, Candiolo, Torino, Italy
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30
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Schneeweiss A, Hensel M, Sinn P, Khbeis T, Haas R, Bastert G, Ho AD. Characteristics associated with long-term progression-free survival following high-dose chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer and influence of chemotherapy dose. Ann Oncol 2002; 13:679-88. [PMID: 12075735 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdf168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to characterize long-term progression-free survivors (LTPFS) of metastatic breast cancer (MBC) following high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) with autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) and to assess the influence of chemotherapy dose in order to identify patients who derive major benefit from this approach. PATIENTS AND METHODS We compared patient and tumor characteristics of 16 LTPFS with the characteristics of 118 MBC patients who received HDCT with ASCT at our institution between 1992 and 2000. To estimate the cumulative dose of chemotherapy received, the summation dose intensity product (SDIP) of the different chemotherapy regimens was calculated as recently described by Hryniuk et al. The SDIP of the induction regimens was added to that of the HDCT regimens to yield the total SDIP of the chemotherapy received. Multivariate analysis was performed to describe the influence of the total SDIP and other prognostic factors on progression-free survival (PFS). RESULTS LTPFS were mostly < or = 50 years of age and had limited, chemotherapy-sensitive, hormone-responsive MBC. Due to an apparent dose-survival relationship, an increase by 10 units (U) in the SDIP increased the PFS time by 3 months. Independent predictors of an improved PFS were positive estrogen receptors (P = 0.001), positive combined hormone receptors (P = 0.020), and a complete remission/no evidence of disease status after HDCT (P < 0.001). In patients who had a disease-free interval (DFI) >24 months after primary surgery, an SDIP of >55 U was independently associated with a longer PFS [hazard ratio (HR) = 2.73; 95% confidence interval 1.29-5.81; P = 0.009]. CONCLUSION HDCT can achieve long-term PFS in young MBC patients with limited, hormone-responsive and chemotherapy-sensitive disease. After a DFI >24 months, a longer PFS is associated with a higher chemotherapy dose as measured by SDIP. These retrospective analyses suggest SDIP might be a tool for studying cumulative dose as a determinant of outcome of MBC chemotherapy. Thus far, however, we cannot clearly identify any subgroup of MBC patients in whom HDCT with ASCT is of particular benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schneeweiss
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Heidelberg, Germany.
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Hensel M, Schneeweiss A, Sinn HP, Egerer G, Kornacker M, Solomayer E, Haas R, Bastert G, Ho AD. Stem cell dose and tumorbiologic parameters as prognostic markers for patients with metastatic breast cancer undergoing high-dose chemotherapy with autologous blood stem cell support. Stem Cells 2002; 20:32-40. [PMID: 11796920 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.20-1-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We report on the prognostic significance of tumorbiologic parameters and CD34(+) cell dose in 120 patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) who received high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) with autologous blood stem cell transplantation as first-line treatment. Her2/neu, p53, Ki67, and bcl-2 protein expression were studied using immunohistochemical staining on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded primary tumor sections. DNA content of tumor cells (DNA-index) and tumor cell proliferation (S-phase fraction) were measured by DNA flow cytometry. The relationship between these parameters and the CD34(+) cell dose and progression free (PFS) and overall survival (OS) was analyzed. With a median follow-up period of 40 months (range, 7-89 months), no more than two metastatic sites (relative risk [RR] = 3.84 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.49-10]; p =.005) and hyperploidy (RR = 2.58 [95% CI 1.26-5.26]; p =.009) were independent predictors of longer PFS according to multivariate analysis. Independent prognostic factors of longer OS included one or two metastatic sites (RR = 4.16 [95% CI 1.96-4.16]; p <.001), a positive combined hormone receptor status (RR = 2.45 [95% CI 1.45-4.14]; p =.001) and a high number of infused stem cells (>7.8 x 10(6) CD34(+) cells per kg body weight) (RR = 2.0 [95% CI 1.17-3.42]; p =.01). In conclusion, positive hormone receptors, < or =2 metastatic sites, high DNA-index and high CD34(+) cell dose (>7.8 x 10(6) CD34(+) cells per kg) are predictors for a favorable outcome after autotransplantation for MBC. Our observation might indicate a favorable effect of HDCT in MBC patients with overexpression of Her2/neu who might have a worse prognosis when treated with conventional chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Hensel
- Department of Internal Medicine V, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Berry DA, Broadwater G, Klein JP, Antman K, Aisner J, Bitran J, Costanza M, Freytes CO, Stadtmauer E, Gale RP, Henderson IC, Lazarus HM, McCarthy PL, Norton L, Parnes H, Pecora A, Perry MC, Rowlings P, Spitzer G, Horowitz MM. High-dose versus standard chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer: comparison of Cancer and Leukemia Group B trials with data from the Autologous Blood and Marrow Transplant Registry. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20:743-50. [PMID: 11821456 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2002.20.3.743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess survival of patients with metastatic breast cancer treated with high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) versus standard-dose chemotherapy (SDC). PATIENTS AND METHODS SDC in four Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) trials was compared with hematopoietic stem-cell support in patients from the Autologous Blood and Marrow Transplant Registry. Cox proportional hazard regression incorporated potentially confounding effects. A total of 1,509 women were enrolled onto CALGB trials, and 1,188 women received HDC. No significant survival differences existed by CALGB trial or HDC regimen. Consideration was restricted to candidates for both SDC and HDC. The resulting sample included 635 SDC and 441 HDC patients. The outcome of interest was overall survival. RESULTS The HDC group displayed better performance status. The SDC group had slightly better survival in first year after treatment. The HDC group had lower hazard of death from years 1 to 4 and had somewhat higher probability of 5-year survival (adjusted probabilities [95% confidence intervals], 23% [17% to 29%] v 15% [11% to 19%], P =.03). CONCLUSION After controlling for known prognostic factors in this nonrandomized analysis of two large independent data sets, women receiving HDC versus SDC for metastatic breast cancer have a similar short-term probability of survival, and might have a modestly higher long-term probability of survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald A Berry
- University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, 77030, USA.
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Rosti G, Ferrante P, Ledermann J, Leyvraz S, Ladenstein R, Koscileniak E, Crown J, Dazzi C, Cariello A, Marangolo M. High-dose chemotherapy for solid tumors: results of the EBMT. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2002; 41:129-40. [PMID: 11856589 DOI: 10.1016/s1040-8428(01)00150-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT), formerly known as European Group for Bone Marrow Transplantation, was established in 1974 in the Netherlands to share experiences, to promote research and clinical studies and to set up registries in the field of hematopoietic tissue transplantation. At the present time more 400 European and non-European centers are members of the EBMT group. In 1984 a new Working Party was created (Solid Tumors) with the aim to investigate the role of high-dose chemotherapy and stem cell support in the fields of adult and pediatric solid tumors. By January 2000 more than 14000 patients were registered, and at the present time this Registry is the world largest database on this subject. Several phase III randomized clinical trials have recently started on behalf of the Group in different diseases (breast carcinoma, small cell lung cancer, ovarian carcinoma, germ cell tumors and Ewing's family sarcoma). Hundreds of randomized patients will finally produce clearer information on this still experimental therapeutic modality. This paper will describe the EBMT Solid Tumors Working Party Registry updated results as well as the main ongoing studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Rosti
- EBMT Solid Tumors Working Party, (Chairman Dr G. Rosti), Ospedale Civile, Viale Randi 5, 48100, Ravenna, Italy.
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Porrata LF, Ingle JN, Litzow MR, Geyer S, Markovic SN. Prolonged survival associated with early lymphocyte recovery after autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for patients with metastatic breast cancer. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001; 28:865-71. [PMID: 11781647 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1703236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2001] [Accepted: 07/30/2001] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Early absolute lymphocyte count (ALC) recovery at day 15 post-autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) is a powerful prognostic indicator for survival in multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The relationship of ALC with clinical outcomes in metastatic breast cancer is unknown. We evaluated all 29 patients with metastatic breast cancer who underwent ASCT at the Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, from 1994 to 1999. The ALC threshold was set at 500 cells/microl on day 15 post-ASCT based on previous experience with hematologic malignancies. All patients were followed for a minimum of 2 years or until death, with a median follow-up for living patients of 2.25 years. Of the 29 patients, 17 have died with disease progression, two are alive and have progressed, and 10 are alive without progression. The median overall and progression-free survival times were significantly better for the 20 patients with ALC > or = 500 cells/microl compared with the nine patients with ALC <500 cells/microl (not reached vs 14 months, P < 0.0001; 24 vs 7 months, P < 0.0015, respectively). In conclusion, ALC > or = 500 cells/microl on day 15 post-ASCT was associated with significantly better survival in patients with metastatic breast cancer, suggesting the importance of early immune recovery post-ASCT in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F Porrata
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Cottu PH, Extra JM, Espie M, Marolleau JP, de Roquancourt A, Makke J, Miclea JM, Laurence V, Mayeur D, Lerebours F, Cuvier C, Marty M. High-dose sequential epirubicin and cyclophosphamide with peripheral blood stem cell support for advanced breast cancer: results of a phase II study. Br J Cancer 2001; 85:1240-6. [PMID: 11720455 PMCID: PMC2375253 DOI: 10.1054/bjoc.2001.2069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of a high-dose intensity and high-dose density multicycle epirubicin and cyclophosphamide regimen with peripheral blood stem cells (PBSC) and haematopoietic growth factor (G-CSF) support in advanced breast cancer patients. From August 1994 to September 1999, 56 breast cancer patients (8 stage IIIB and 48 stage IV) received 205 courses of cyclophosphamide 3 g x m(-2) and epirubicin 100 mg x m(-2) every 14 days. G-CSF 5 microg x kg(-1) x day(-1) was administered from day 3 to neutrophil recovery. 4 courses were planned. PBSC were collected after course 1, and reinfused after courses 3 and 4, with > or = 2 x 10(6) CD34+ PBSC x kg(-1) required for each reinfusion. 48 patients (86%) received all 4 planned courses. Early withdrawal was consecutive to infectious complications (n = 4), severe asthenia (n = 3), haemorrhagic cystitis (n = 1). A median number of 10.8 x 10(6) CD34+ PBSC x kg(-1) (range, 3-80) was harvested with 1 or 2 apheresis in 48 patients (94%). Median relative dose intensity was 91.3% (range, 72-102%). Grade 4 neutrophil toxicity was observed in 100% of patients. Febrile neutropenia was observed in 40% of courses (median duration 2 days). Red blood cells and platelets had to be transfused in 54% and 27% of courses, respectively. There were no toxic deaths. Objective response rate was 69% in stage IV patients (31/45 evaluable pts), with a 16% complete response rate. Their median progression-free and overall survivals were 22.5 and 37 months, respectively. This epirubicine-containing high-dose regimen appeared feasible, albeit with high toxicity. Time-related progression parameters exceed commonly reported ones. Controlled studies of upfront sequential high-dose chemotherapy are still needed to evaluate its real benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Cottu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, 1 av Claude Vellefaux, Paris, 75010, France
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Schrama JG, Baars JW, Holtkamp MJ, Schornagel JH, Beijnen JH, Rodenhuis S. Phase II study of a multi-course high-dose chemotherapy regimen incorporating cyclophosphamide, thiotepa, and carboplatin in stage IV breast cancer. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001; 28:173-80. [PMID: 11509935 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1703105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2000] [Accepted: 04/24/2001] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility and efficacy of multiple courses of high-dose cyclophosphamide, carboplatin and thiotepa with peripheral blood progenitor cell (PBPC) transplantation in women with advanced breast cancer. Forty-one patients with advanced hormone-refractory breast cancer were enrolled in the study. The treatment started with two courses of 5-fluorouracil 500 mg/m(2), epirubicin 120 mg/m(2) and cyclophosphamide 500 mg/m(2) (FE(120)C) followed by PBPC harvesting. The high-dose regimen consisted of three subsequent courses of 'tiny' CTC, cyclophosphamide 4000 mg/m(2), thiotepa 320 mg/m(2) and carboplatin 1060 mg/m(2) (target AUC 13.3 mg/ml/min) (tCTC) divided over 4 consecutive days. The second and third courses were scheduled to begin on day 28 after the previous transplantation. A total of 86 tCTC courses was given to 33 of the 41 enrolled patients. Major toxicities consisted of hemorrhagic cystitis (six patients), prolonged gastro-intestinal toxicity (three patients) and veno-occlusive disease (two patients). There was one therapy-related death (unknown cause). Twenty patients (49%) achieved a complete response, nine (22%) a partial response and three patients stable disease after treatment. The median follow-up of the surviving patients was 43 months (range 25-61). Six patients remain in complete remission beyond 3 years. At 4 years, the progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) for the whole patient group were 23 and 30% with a median duration of 12 and 27 months, respectively and for FE(120)C-responsive patients 32 and 36%, respectively with a median duration of 15 and 33 months. In the patient group with a PFS > or = 18 months all patients had limited disease (metastatic disease in only one or two sites) and fewer patients had bone or liver metastases compared to the overall patient group (33% vs 51%). This report shows that three closely spaced courses of tCTC are feasible, with acceptable toxicity. Triple tCTC can achieve complete or partial remission in most patients and long-term PFS in a selected subgroup of patients who have limited metastatic disease and are responsive to conventional-dose chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J G Schrama
- Division of Medical Oncology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Schneeweiss A, Hensel M, Goerner R, Khbeis T, Hohaus S, Egerer G, Solomayer E, Haas R, Grischke EM, Bastert G, Ho AD. Comparison of double and triple high-dose chemotherapy with autologous blood stem cell transplantation in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Stem Cells 2001; 19:151-60. [PMID: 11239170 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.19-2-151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC), early dose intensification with multiple cycles of peripheral blood stem cell-supported high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) seems superior to a late dose-intensification strategy. We compared the progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) of 20 patients treated with a double (D)-HDCT regimen to 20 patients who received a triple (T)-HDCT, matched by age, estrogen receptor (ER) status, adjuvant chemotherapy, initial disease-free interval, predominant metastatic site, and number of metastatic sites. At a median follow-up of 41.5 months (range, 14-88 months) an intent-to-treat analysis showed no difference in PFS (p = 0.72) and OS (p = 0.93) between the matched patients. For all 76 patients treated within the D- or T-HDCT trial, median PFS and OS was 13 months (range, 2-78 months) and 24.5 months (range, 7-78 months), respectively. In multivariate analysis independent predictors of shorter OS included negative ER (relative risk [RR] = 3.0 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.5-5.9]; p = 0.002), more than two metastatic sites (RR = 2.4 [95% CI 1.0-5.7]; p = 0.049) and failure to achieve complete remission/no evidence of disease (CR/NED) after HDCT (RR = 4.5 [95% CI 2.0-10.1]; p < 0.0001). These data show that early dose intensification with T-HDCT is not superior to a D-HDCT regimen in patients with MBC. ER-negative tumors, more than two metastatic sites and no CR/NED after HDCT, are associated with inferior outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schneeweiss
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Pecora AL, Lazarus HM, Stadtmauer EA, Winter J, Van Vliet A, Berry D, Gray R, Jennis A, Goldberg S, Cooper BW, Preti R. Effect of induction chemotherapy and tandem cycles of high-dose chemotherapy on outcomes in autologous stem cell transplant for metastatic breast cancer. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001; 27:1245-53. [PMID: 11548842 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1703066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We assessed the effect standard-dose induction chemotherapy and tandem cycles of high-dose chemotherapy (HDC) have on outcomes in metastatic breast cancer. One hundred and one women with metastatic breast cancer were enrolled in two non-randomized phase II studies. The first group of 64 patients (induction group) received four cycles of docetaxel 75 mg/m2 and doxorubicin 50 mg/m2. The next 37 patients did not receive induction (no induction group). Both groups received two (tandem) cycles of HDC. Blood-derived stem cells were collected after the first HDC cycle, processed using CD34+ cell selection and then reinfused after the second HDC cycle. Outcomes were compared between the two groups and also to patients participating in the Philadelphia (inter-group) randomized metastatic breast cancer transplant trial (PBT-01). Intent-to-treat analysis revealed no significant differences in complete response rates (37.5% vs 27%; P = 0.20), overall response (75% vs 71%), median progression free survival (PFS) (11.9 vs 8 months; P = 0.24) and overall survival (OS) (>36 vs 25 months; P = 0.16), in the induction vs no induction groups, respectively. Adjusting for differences in known baseline characteristics, induction group patients were found to have significantly longer PFS (P = 0.002), OS (P = 0.01) and more frequent conversion from a partial to complete response (58% vs < or = 13%, P < or = 0.0002) when compared with PBT-01 patients. Induction chemotherapy administered prior to tandem cycles of HDC does not appear to adversely affect outcomes in metastatic breast cancer patients. Outcomes in our induction group also compare favorably with those observed in PBT-01 and warrant further clinical investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Pecora
- Hackensack University Medical Center, NJ, USA
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Reece DE, Foon KA, Battacharya-Chatterjee M, Adkins D, Broun ER, Connaghan DG, Dipersio JF, Holland HK, Howard DS, Hale GA, Klingemann HG, Munn RK, Raptis A, Phillips GL. Interim analysis of the use of the anti-idiotype breast cancer vaccine 11D10 (TriAb) in conjunction with autologous stem cell transplantation in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Clin Breast Cancer 2001; 2:52-8. [PMID: 11899383 DOI: 10.3816/cbc.2001.n.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The anti-idiotype monoclonal antibody breast cancer vaccine 11D10 (TriAb) was administered before and after autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) in 45 patients with metastatic breast cancer whose disease was responsive to conventional chemotherapy. Evidence of a positive anti-anti-idiotype antibody (Ab3) humoral response was noted at a median of 1.76 months post-ASCT (range, before ASCT-6 months) with this strategy. Maximal Ab3 levels and idiotype-specific T-cell proliferative responses were observed at a median of 3 and 4 months, respectively, after ASCT. The achievement of rapid immune responses after ASCT, during a known period of decreased immunoresponsiveness, opens the possibility of an additional antitumor effect at a time when the tumor burden is relatively small. Moreover, in this interim analysis, patients with the most vigorous humoral and cellular immune responses had a significant improvement in progression-free survival. Further follow-up and evaluation of this approach is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Reece
- University of Kentucky, Blood and Marrow Transplant Program, Lexington, KY, USA.
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Morreim EH. From the clinics to the courts: the role evidence should play in litigating medical care. JOURNAL OF HEALTH POLITICS, POLICY AND LAW 2001; 26:409-427. [PMID: 11330087 DOI: 10.1215/03616878-26-2-409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
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Sosman JA, Stiff P, Moss SM, Sorokin P, Martone B, Bayer R, van Besien K, Devine S, Stock W, Peace D, Chen Y, Long C, Gustin D, Viana M, Hoffman R. Pilot trial of interleukin-2 with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for the mobilization of progenitor cells in advanced breast cancer patients undergoing high-dose chemotherapy: expansion of immune effectors within the stem-cell graft and post-stem-cell infusion. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19:634-44. [PMID: 11157013 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2001.19.3.634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate whether administration of interleukin-2 (IL-2) with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) improves mobilization of immune effector cells into the stem-cell graft of patients undergoing high-dose chemotherapy and autografting. PATIENTS AND METHODS We performed a trial of stem-cell mobilization with IL-2 and G-CSF in advanced breast cancer patients receiving high-dose chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, thiotepa, and carboplatin and stem cells followed by IL-2. The trial defined immune, hematologic, and clinical effects of IL-2 in this setting. RESULTS Of 32 patients enrolled, nine received G-CSF alone for mobilization. Twenty-one of 23 patients mobilized with IL-2 plus G-CSF had stem cells collected with more mononuclear cells than those receiving G-CSF (19.3 v 10.4 x 10(8)/kg; P =.006), but fewer CD34(+) progenitor cells (6.9 v 22.0 x 10(6)/kg; P =.049). The IL-2 plus G-CSF-mobilized patients had greater numbers of activated T (CD3(+)/CD25(+)) cells (P =.009), natural killer (NK; CD56(+)) cells (P =.007), and activated NK (CD56 bright(+)) cells (P: =.039) than those patients mobilized with G-CSF. NK (P =.042) and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) (P =.016) activity was increased in those mobilized with IL-2 + G-CSF, whereas G-CSF-mobilized patients had a decline in cytolytic activity. In the third week posttransplantation, immune reconstitution was superior in those mobilized with IL-2 plus G-CSF based on greater numbers of activated T cells (P =.003), activated NK cells (P =.04), and greater LAK activity (P =.003). The 16 of 21 IL-2 + G-CSF-mobilized patients with adequate numbers of stem cells (> 1.5 x 10(6) CD34(+) cells/kg) collected engrafted rapidly posttransplantation. CONCLUSION The results demonstrate that G-CSF + IL-2 can enhance the number and function of antitumor effector cells in a mobilized autograft without impairing the hematologic engraftment, provided that CD34 cell counts are more than 1.5 x 10(6) cells/kg. Mobilization of CD34(+) stem cells does seem to be adversely affected. In those mobilized with IL-2 and G-CSF, post-stem-cell immune reconstitution of antitumor immune effector cells was enhanced.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Sosman
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago 60612, USA.
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Bengala C, Pazzagli I, Innocenti F, Donati S, Favre C, Menconi MC, Greco F, Danesi R, Orlandini C, Guarneri V, Del Tacca M, Conte PF. High-dose thiotepa and melphalan with hemopoietic progenitor support following induction therapy with epirubicin-paclitaxel-containing regimens in metastatic breast cancer (MBC). Ann Oncol 2001; 12:69-74. [PMID: 11249051 DOI: 10.1023/a:1008302402687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Preliminary data from phase III randomized studies have failed to show benefit of HDC given as consolidation after anthracycline and alkylating-based chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer (MBC). Moderate activity of induction regimens and selection of chemoresistant clones are among the possible reasons for these disappointing results. We therefore have designed a phase II study where high-dose alkylating agents are given as consolidation after an induction treatment including the most active agents (epirubicin and paclitaxel) without alkylating agents. PATIENTS AND METHODS Patients with MBC not previously treated with chemotherapy for metastatic disease were eligible. After six courses of epirubicin-paclitaxel +/- gemcitabine patients received a course of thiotepa 600 mg/m2 + melphalan 160 mg/m2 with hemopoietic support. Pharmacokinetic parameters of thiotepa and melphalan were measured and related to treatment outcomes. The L-VEF of the patients was monitored before and after treatment. RESULTS Forty-eight patients have been treated. Before HDC 14 patients were in CR, and 34 in PR. A median of 6.92 x 10(6) (range 1.53-16.6) CD34+ cells/kg were reinfused after HDC. Median days (range) to neutrophils > 0.5 x 10(9)/l and platelets > 20,000 x 10(9)/l were 9.5 (9-33) and 10 days (9-32), respectively. Symptomatic CHF was observed in two patients (4.1%). Cmax and AUC of thiotepa showed a linear relationship with time to progression (TTP) and overall survival (OS): r2 = 0.6. After HDC the conversion rate from PR to CR was 44.1%. At five years progression-free and overall survival rates are 37.5% and 65%, respectively. A treatment-related death was observed. CONCLUSIONS High-dose thiotepa and melphalan after an epirubicin-paclitaxel-containing treatment is feasible, devoid of significant cardiotoxicity and very active. Pharmacokinetic parameters of high-dose thiotepa might be linked to treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bengala
- Department of Oncology Transplants ancd Advanced Technologies in Medicine, St. Chiara Hospital and University of Pisa, Italy
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Vij R, DiPersio J, Brown R, Trinkaus K, Abboud C, Meehan KR, Frenette G, Freytes C, Goodnough LT, Khoury H, Ponnuri J, Adkins D. Outcomes of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplant in isolated locally recurrent breast cancer: a multicenter evaluation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2000; 26:947-53. [PMID: 11100273 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1702657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
To determine the outcomes of women with isolated loco-regional recurrence (LRR) of breast cancer treated with high-dose chemotherapy (HDCT) and autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) following conventional therapy, we conducted a retrospective review of 58 patients from five institutions treated between 1990 and 1998. Forty-five patients (78%) had > or = 2 poor prognostic factors (PPF) (defined as disease-free interval preceding LRR < or = 2 years, hormone receptor negative/refractory disease, and incomplete resection). At median follow-up of 14.2 (0.5-72) months, 36 patients (62%) developed progressive disease. Disease progression usually occurred at local (27 patients) vs distant (nine patients) sites. Median time to disease progression following ASCT was 6.1 (1.3-31.4) months. At last follow-up, 23 patients (40%) had expired (all due to disease progression), and 13 (22%) were alive with, and 22 (38%) without progressive disease. By Kaplan-Meier analysis, the estimated median PFS and OS was 20.3 and 29.2 months, respectively. In a multivariate model, complete remission at time of HDCT and estrogen-receptor positive disease were predictive of significantly longer PFS and OS. The survival of this cohort was similar to previous reports of those treated with conventional therapy alone, and to those with distant metastases treated with HDCT. Frequent progression locally, suggests that strategies to improve local disease control are needed.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Antineoplastic Agents, Hormonal/therapeutic use
- Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols/therapeutic use
- Biomarkers, Tumor/analysis
- Breast Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Breast Neoplasms/mortality
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Breast Neoplasms/therapy
- Chemotherapy, Adjuvant
- Combined Modality Therapy
- Disease Progression
- Female
- Follow-Up Studies
- Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
- Humans
- Life Tables
- Mastectomy
- Middle Aged
- Neoplasm Proteins/analysis
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/drug therapy
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/mortality
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/pathology
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/therapy
- Neoplasms, Hormone-Dependent/drug therapy
- Neoplasms, Hormone-Dependent/mortality
- Neoplasms, Hormone-Dependent/pathology
- Neoplasms, Hormone-Dependent/therapy
- Prognosis
- Radiotherapy, Adjuvant
- Receptors, Estrogen/analysis
- Remission Induction
- Retrospective Studies
- Survival Analysis
- Treatment Outcome
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Affiliation(s)
- R Vij
- Washington University School of Medicine, Division of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Stem Cell Biology, St Louis, MO 63110-1093, USA
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Montemurro F, Ueno NT, Rondón G, Aglietta M, Champlin RE. High-dose chemotherapy with hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for breast cancer: current status, future trends. Clin Breast Cancer 2000; 1:197-209; discussion 210. [PMID: 11899644 DOI: 10.3816/cbc.2000.n.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
High-dose chemotherapy with hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HDC/HSCT) has been extensively studied as a potential treatment for breast cancer. A literature search of MEDLINE from January 1990 through December 1999 identified 497 published full papers. Of these articles, 120 reported the results of clinical trials, 78 were reviews, and 299 reported on issues related to the technology of peripheral stem cells, supportive care, and toxicity. The phase II data must be interpreted with caution, as it is subject to selection bias; transplant recipients tended to be younger, rigorously staged, and selected to be chemotherapy responsive. There continues to be controversy regarding the role of high-dose therapy in this disease. Only a few fully published randomized trials are available; these studies were powered only to detect large differences in survival and no benefit was shown. Several large controlled trials are either in progress or are too early for definitive analysis. This review analyzes the current literature on HDC/HSCT for breast cancer, identifying prognostic factors and discussing ongoing research designed to improve antitumor effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Montemurro
- Department of Oncology and Hematology, University of Turin, Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment, Candiolo, Turin, Italy.
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Reece DE, Foon KA, Bhattacharya-Chatterjee M, Hale GA, Howard DS, Munn RK, Nath R, Plummer BA, Teitelbaum A, Phillips GL. Use of the anti-idiotype antibody vaccine TriAb after autologous stem cell transplantation in patients with metastatic breast cancer. Bone Marrow Transplant 2000; 26:729-35. [PMID: 11042653 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1702607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Between April 1997 and March 1998 we evaluated the immune response and outcome in 11 chemosensitive patients who were treated with the anti-idiotype antibody vaccine TriAb after recovery from intensive therapy and autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT). Triab was commenced after recovery from the acute effects of ASCT; a minimum interval of 1 month was required from completion of consolidation radiotherapy, if given. Nine patients (82%) manifest anti-anti-idiotype antibody (Ab3) responses post ASCT. The maximal Ab3 response was seen after a median of 10 doses (range 5-20), which corresponded to a median of 14 months (range 5-19) post ASCT. Evidence of a T cell proliferative response was seen in eight patients; the response was modest in most of these. At a median follow-up of 24 months (range 22-33) after ASCT, four patients are alive without evidence of disease progression. All four of these patients were in the subgroup with more vigorous immune responses. Subsequent efforts have been directed toward the achievement of higher levels of immune responses more rapidly post ASCT. Bone Marrow Transplantation (2000) 26, 729-735.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Reece
- University of Kentucky, Blood and Marrow Transplant Program, Lexington,KY 40536-0093, USA
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Abraham R, Nagy T, Goss PE, Crump M. High dose chemotherapy and autologous blood stem cell support in women with breast carcinoma and isolated supraclavicular lymph node metastases. Cancer 2000; 88:790-5. [PMID: 10679648 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0142(20000215)88:4<790::aid-cncr9>3.0.co;2-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prognosis of patients with isolated supraclavicular lymph node (SCN) metastases is similar to patients with metastatic breast carcinoma involving other sites. Because these patients have a lower disease burden compared with women with distant metastases, their outcome after high dose chemotherapy (HDCT) may be superior. METHODS The authors evaluated event free survival (EFS) and overall survival in a series of 20 consecutive women with SCN metastases as the only site of metastatic disease who were treated with HDCT and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation at The Toronto Hospital. All patients had responded to 4-6 cycles of induction CT using either an anthracycline-containing regimen or a single agent taxane, and received intensive therapy comprised of mitoxantrone, 64 mg/m(2); cyclophosphamide, 6000 mg/m(2); and carboplatin, 800-2000 mg/m(2), each divided over 4 days followed by the infusion of autologous peripheral blood stem cells. Involved field radiation therapy (RT) was administered when possible after transplantation to the supraclavicular fossa and tamoxifen was given to previously untreated patients if they were hormone receptor positive or if their hormone receptor status was unknown. RESULTS At a median follow-up of 28 months, 13 of the 20 women were alive, 11 of whom (55%) remained in continuous complete remission. There were no treatment-related deaths. The median overall survival was 37 months and the median progression free survival was 32 months from the date of transplantation. Consolidative RT was delivered to 11 women and on univariate analysis was found to be significantly associated with better EFS (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS The long term outcome of women with breast carcinoma and isolated SCN metastases whose disease is sensitive to CT appears to be favorable; whether this result is superior to that achieved with standard therapy alone remains to be confirmed in prospective, randomized trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Abraham
- Autologous Blood and Bone Marrow Transplant Programme, The University of Toronto, Department of Medical Oncology-Hematology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Crump M, Pritchard K. High dose therapy with stem cell support for breast cancer: the jury is still out. Cancer Treat Res 2000; 103:115-36. [PMID: 10948444 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-3147-7_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Crump
- Toronto-Sunnybrook Regional Cancer Center
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King NM. Defining and describing benefit appropriately in clinical trials. THE JOURNAL OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS : A JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS 2000; 28:332-43. [PMID: 11317426 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720x.2000.tb00685.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Institutional review boards (IRBs) and investigators are used to talking about risks of harm. Both low risks of great harm and high risks of small harm must be disclosed to prospective subjects and should be explained and categorized in ways that help potential subjects to understand and weigh them appropriately. Everyone on an IRB has probably spent time at meetings arguing over whether a three-page bulleted list of risk description is helpful or overkill for prospective subjects. Yet only a small fraction of all the time and attention lavished on risk disclosure has been devoted to discussing whether and when potential benefit to subjects can reasonably be claimed and, if so, how it should be described in the consent form and process.Traditionally, IRBs and regulators have worked to ensure that clear lines can be drawn between research that, by definition, carries no potential for direct benefit — because it uses healthy volunteers or because it is not foreseeably focused on the development of treatments — and research that does have the development of effective treatments as its goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M King
- University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, USA
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