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Bushover B, Mehranbod CA, Roberts LE, Gobaud AN, Fish C, Gao X, Zadey S, Morrison CN. Temperature and firearm violence in four US cities: testing competing hypotheses. Inj Prev 2024:ip-2024-045248. [PMID: 39025672 DOI: 10.1136/ip-2024-045248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Firearm violence is a major public health issue in the USA. There is growing evidence that firearm violence is associated with higher ambient temperatures. The aim of this study was to test competing hypotheses that could explain associations between temperature and firearm violence: temperature-aggression theory and routine activities theory. METHODS We examined associations between elevated daily temperatures and shooting incidents in four US cities: Chicago, Illinois; Cincinnati, Ohio; New York, New York and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Temperature was operationalised using two different measures: daily maximum temperature and deviations of the daily maximum temperature from 30-year averages. Generalised linear autoregressive moving average models related temperature to shooting incidence while controlling for seasonal effects. RESULTS As maximum daily temperature deviates from the expected, there was an association with increased shooting incidents in all four cities (eg, New York: b=0.014, 95% CI=0.011 to 0.017). An interaction term created by multiplying daily maximum temperature by the daily difference of maximum temperature from a 30-year average was also found to have a positive association in all four cities (eg, New York: b=0.020, 95% CI=0.016 to 0.025). DISCUSSION These findings accord with previous studies demonstrating a positive relationship between temperature and firearm violence and further support temperature-aggression theory as the primary causal mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brady Bushover
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Leah E Roberts
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ariana N Gobaud
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Carolyn Fish
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Xiang Gao
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Siddhesh Zadey
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Christopher N Morrison
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Gause EL, McLone SG, Cunningham M, Jay J. Community-Academic Partnership to Assess the Role of Physical Disinvestment on Firearm Violence in Toledo, OH. J Urban Health 2024; 101:584-594. [PMID: 38771432 PMCID: PMC11189884 DOI: 10.1007/s11524-024-00870-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Reversing physical disinvestment, e.g., by remediating abandoned buildings and vacant lots, is an evidence-based strategy to reduce urban firearm violence. However, adoption of this strategy has been inconsistent across US cities. Our community-academic partnership sought to support adoption in Toledo, OH, USA, by generating locally relevant analyses on physical disinvestment and firearm violence. We used a spatial case-control design with matching. Physical disinvestment measures were derived from a citywide parcel foot audit conducted by the Lucas County Land Bank in summer 2021. Firearm violence outcomes were incident-level shootings data from the Toledo Police Department from October 2021 through February 2023. Shooting locations were matched to controls 1:4 on poverty rate, roadway characteristics, and zoning type. Exposures were calculated by aggregating parcels within 5-min walking buffers of each case and control point. We tested multiple disinvestment measures, including a composite index. Models were logistic regressions that adjusted for the matching variables and for potential spatial autocorrelation. Our sample included N = 281 shooting locations and N = 1124 matched controls. A 1-unit increase in the disinvestment score, equal to approximately 1 additional disrepair condition for the average parcel within the walking buffer, was associated with 1.68 times (95% CI: 1.36, 2.07) higher odds of shooting incidence. Across all other measures, greater disinvestment was associated with higher odds of shooting incidence. Our finding of a strong association between physical disinvestment and firearm violence in Toledo can inform local action. Community-academic partnership could help increase adoption of violence prevention strategies focused on reversing physical disinvestment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L Gause
- Center for Climate and Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
- Firearm Injury and Policy Research Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Suzanne G McLone
- Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Malcolm Cunningham
- Mayor's Office of Neighborhood Safety and Engagement, City of Toledo, OH, USA
- Bloomberg American Health Initiative, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan Jay
- Department of Community Health Sciences, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
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Xiao H, Li Y, Liu X, Wen Q, Yao C, Zhang Y, Xie W, Wu W, Wu L, Ma X, Li Y, Ji A, Cai T. High ambient temperature may increase the risk of anemia in pregnancy: Identifying susceptible exposure windows. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 926:172059. [PMID: 38556012 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Anemia in pregnancy (AIP) is associated with multiple severe maternal and perinatal adverse outcomes. However, there is a lack of evidence on the association between environmental factors and AIP. Aim to explore the association between ambient temperature and the risk of AIP, and identify susceptible exposure windows, we conducted a matched case-control study from 2013 to 2016 in Xi'an, China, which included 710 women with AIP and 1420 women without AIP. The conditional logistic regression model was used to evaluate the association between ambient temperature and AIP at different gestational weeks and gestational months. The association between extreme temperature and AIP was evaluated using the distributed lag nonlinear model (DLNM). We conducted stratified analyses of age, parity, and season of conception, and estimated the interaction between ambient temperature and air pollutants on AIP. Ambient temperature was significantly positively associated with the risk of AIP, and the susceptible exposure windows were 2-25 gestational weeks and 1-6 gestational months, respectively. The strongest effect was observed in the week 8 and month 2, for each 1 °C increase in weekly and monthly mean temperature, the odds ratio (OR) for AIP was 1.038 (95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.022, 1.055) and 1.040 (95 % CI: 1.020, 1.060), respectively. Extreme heat may increase the risk of AIP. Stratified analyses showed that there was no significant difference among different age, parity, and season of conception groups. No significant interaction effect of ambient temperature with air pollution on AIP was found. In summary, high ambient temperature may increase the risk of AIP, and the first and second trimesters may be susceptible exposure windows. Understanding the effect of temperature on pregnant women will be beneficial to reduce the occurrence of AIP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Xiao
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Yunlong Li
- Department of Hematology, Chongqing Hospital of Jiangsu Province Hospital (Qijiang People Hospital), Chongqing 401420, China
| | - Xiaoling Liu
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Qin Wen
- Medical Center of Hematology, Xinqiao Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), 400037, China
| | - Chunyan Yao
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Yao Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Weijia Xie
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Wenhui Wu
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Long Wu
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xiangyu Ma
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Yafei Li
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Ailing Ji
- Department of Digital Health, Chongqing College of Architecture and Technology, Chongqing 401331, China.
| | - Tongjian Cai
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Preventive Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Trauma and Chemical Poisoning, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China.
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Wen B, Kliengchuay W, Suwanmanee S, Aung HW, Sahanavin N, Siriratruengsuk W, Kawichai S, Tawatsupa B, Xu R, Li S, Guo Y, Tantrakarnapa K. Association of cause-specific hospital admissions with high and low temperatures in Thailand: a nationwide time series study. THE LANCET REGIONAL HEALTH. WESTERN PACIFIC 2024; 46:101058. [PMID: 38596004 PMCID: PMC11000193 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanwpc.2024.101058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Background Non-optimum temperatures are associated with a considerable mortality burden. However, evidence of temperature with all-cause and cause-specific hospital admissions in tropical countries like Thailand is still limited. Methods Daily all-cause and cause-specific hospital admissions for outpatient and inpatient visits were collected from 77 provinces in Thailand from January 2013 to August 2019. A two-stage time-series approach was applied to assess the association between non-optimum temperatures and hospital admission. We first fitted the province-specific temperature-morbidity association and then obtained the national association in the second stage using a random-effects meta-analysis regression. The attributable fraction (AF) of hospital admissions with 95% empirical confidence interval (eCI) was calculated. Findings A total of 878,513,460 all-cause outpatient admissions and 32,616,600 all-cause inpatient admissions were included in this study. We observed a J-shaped relationship with the risk of hospital admissions increasing for both cold and hot temperatures. The overall AFs of all-cause hospital admissions due to non-optimum temperatures were 7.57% (95% eCI: 6.47%, 8.39%) for outpatient visits and 6.17% (95% eCI: 4.88%, 7.20%) for inpatient visits. Hot temperatures were responsible for most of the AFs of hospital admissions, with 6.71% (95% eCI: 5.80%, 7.41%) for outpatient visits and 4.50% (95% eCI: 3.62%, 5.19%) for inpatient visits. The burden of hospital admissions was greater in females and in children and adolescents (0-19 years). The fractions of hospital admissions attributable to non-optimum temperatures exhibited variation among disease categories and geographical areas. Interpretation The results indicate that low and high temperature has a significant impact on hospital admissions, especially among the females, and children and adolescents (0-19 years). The current investigation could provide evidence for policymakers to develop adaptation strategies and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on public health in Thailand and other tropical countries. Funding National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT): E-Asia Joint Research Program: Climate change impact on natural and human systems (N33A650979).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wen
- Climate, Air Quality Research Unit, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Wissanupong Kliengchuay
- Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Environment, Health and Social Impact Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - San Suwanmanee
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Htoo Wai Aung
- Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Narut Sahanavin
- Faculty of Physical Education, Srinakharnwirot University, Nakhon Nayok, Thailand
| | | | - Sawaeng Kawichai
- Research Institute of Health Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
| | | | - Rongbin Xu
- Climate, Air Quality Research Unit, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Shanshan Li
- Climate, Air Quality Research Unit, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Yuming Guo
- Climate, Air Quality Research Unit, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kraichat Tantrakarnapa
- Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Environment, Health and Social Impact Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Guo Y, Gao Y, He C, Zhu Y, Zhou L, Kan H, Chen R. Short-term high temperature may increase the incidence risk of collective conflicts: A case-crossover study in the Greater Middle East. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 915:170105. [PMID: 38232834 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Violent conflict is a formidable global challenge, with long-lasting impacts on individual health and society security. There has been compelling evidence that heat can increase aggression intention on the individual level. However, little is known about the short-term relationship between ambient temperature and collective violent conflicts, especially in less developed regions. METHOD We conducted a time-stratified case-crossover study combined with the distributed lag nonlinear model (DLNM) among 247,773 violent conflicts from 29 countries or regions in the Greater Middle East, between 1997 and 2021. Potential modification effects of economic status and climate conditions were explored by stratified analyses. Negative control and sensitivity analyses were also performed to test the robustness of our model. RESULTS We observed significant associations between higher temperature and the onset of five categories of violent conflicts. The effects generally occurred within the first several days after exposure. The incidence risks of battles, violence against civilians, explosions/remote violence, protests and riots were 1.60 [95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.31-1.95], 1.82 (95 % CI: 1.37-2.42), 1.24 (95 % CI: 1.08-1.41), 1.16 (95 % CI: 1.09-1.24) and 1.54 (95 % CI: 1.22-1.95) when comparing extreme high temperatures to minimum-risk temperatures. The associations were generally more prominent in areas with lower economic levels and associations in regions of the continental climate are also stronger. CONCLUSIONS Our finding reveals novel and concrete evidence that short-term high temperature could increase the risk of multiple forms of violent conflict in the Greater Middle East and provides new insights into the potential short-term mechanisms under the heat-collective violence association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichen Guo
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ya Gao
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cheng He
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yixiang Zhu
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lu Zhou
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Haidong Kan
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; IRDR ICoE on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Renjie Chen
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education, NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; IRDR ICoE on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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Cerceo E, Saxer K, Grossman L, Shapley-Quinn K, Feldman-Winter L. The Climate Crisis and Breastfeeding: Opportunities for Resilience. J Hum Lact 2024; 40:33-50. [PMID: 38158719 DOI: 10.1177/08903344231216726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
The climate crisis is an emerging global challenge that poses potential risks to breastfeeding practices and outcomes. There are multifaceted effects of climate change affecting the breastfeeding dyad across environmental, societal, and human health dimensions. Breastfeeding support in the face of climate change will require solutions at the structural level-healthcare, community, and workplace settings-and at the mother-infant dyad level. Breastfeeding can additionally be an adaptive response to crisis situations and can mitigate some of the environmental challenges associated with climate change. Despite the undeniable significance of climate change on breastfeeding (and vice versa), our perspective as experts in the field is that this topic has not been systematically addressed. Although we highlight some of the challenges, potential solutions, and co-benefits of breastfeeding in the context of climate change, there are numerous issues that could be further explored and necessitate additional preparedness planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Cerceo
- Cooper University Healthcare, Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Camden, NJ, USA
| | | | - Lauren Grossman
- General Internal Medicine and Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | | | - Lori Feldman-Winter
- Cooper University Healthcare, Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Camden, NJ, USA
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Jay J, Allen K. Curbing the Epidemic of Community Firearm Violence after the Bruen Decision. THE JOURNAL OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS : A JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS 2023; 51:77-82. [PMID: 37226753 PMCID: PMC10209991 DOI: 10.1017/jme.2023.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The Supreme Court's decision in New York State Rifle & Pistol Association Inc. v. Bruen undermines the ability of cities and states to regulate firearms safety. Nonetheless, we remain hopeful that firearm violence can decline even after the Bruen decision. Several promising public health approaches have gained broader adoption in recent years. This essay examines the key drivers of community firearm violence and reviews promising strategies to reverse those conditions, including community violence intervention (CVI) programs and place-based and structural interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Jay
- BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, USA
| | - Kalice Allen
- BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, USA
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Lanfear CC, Bucci R, Kirk DS, Sampson RJ. Inequalities in Exposure to Firearm Violence by Race, Sex, and Birth Cohort From Childhood to Age 40 Years, 1995-2021. JAMA Netw Open 2023; 6:e2312465. [PMID: 37159198 PMCID: PMC10170342 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.12465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Importance The past quarter-century has seen both sharp declines and increases in firearm violence in the United States. Yet, little is known about the age of first exposure to firearm violence and how it may differ by race, sex, and cohort. Objective To examine race, sex, and cohort differences in exposure to firearm violence in a representative longitudinal study of children who grew up in periods with varying rates of firearm violence in the United States and to examine spatial proximity to firearm violence in adulthood. Design, Setting, and Participants This population-based representative cohort study included multiple cohorts of children followed-up from 1995 through 2021 in the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN). Participants included Black, Hispanic, and White respondents from 4 age cohorts of Chicago, Illinois, residents, with modal birth years of 1981, 1984, 1987, and 1996. Data analyses were conducted from May 2022 to March 2023. Main Outcomes and Measures Firearm violence exposure, including age when first shot, age when first saw someone shot, and past-year frequency of fatal and nonfatal shootings within 250 m of residence. Results There were 2418 participants in wave 1 (in the mid-1990s), and they were evenly split by sex, with 1209 males (50.00%) and 1209 females (50.00%). There were 890 Black respondents, 1146 Hispanic respondents, and 382 White respondents. Male respondents were much more likely than female respondents to have been shot (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 4.23; 95% CI, 2.28-7.84), but only moderately more likely to have seen someone shot (aHR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.27-1.72). Compared with White individuals, Black individuals experienced higher rates of all 3 forms of exposure (been shot: aHR, 3.05; 95% CI, 1.22-7.60; seen someone shot: aHR, 4.69; 95% CI, 3.41-6.46; nearby shootings: adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR], 12.40; 95% CI, 6.88-22.35), and Hispanic respondents experienced higher rates of 2 forms of violence exposure (seen someone shot: aHR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.85-3.62; nearby shootings: aIRR, 3.77; 95% CI, 2.08-6.84). Respondents born in the mid-1990s who grew up amidst large declines in homicide but reached adulthood during city and national spikes in firearm violence in 2016 were less likely to have seen someone shot than those born in the early 1980s who grew up during the peak of homicide in the early 1990s (aHR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.35-0.69). However, the likelihood of having been shot did not significantly differ between these cohorts (aHR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.40-1.63). Conclusions and Relevance In this longitudinal multicohort study of exposure to firearm violence, there were stark differences by race and sex, yet the extent of exposure to violence was not simply the product of these characteristics. These findings on cohort differences suggest changing societal conditions were key factors associated with whether and at what life stage individuals from all race and sex groups were exposed to firearm violence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles C Lanfear
- Institute of Criminology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca Bucci
- Department of Sociology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - David S Kirk
- Department of Sociology and Nuffield College, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Robert J Sampson
- Department of Sociology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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