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Quantifying Acute Behavioral Reactions of Bali Mynas (Leucopsar rothschildi) to Environmental and Progressively Challenging Enrichment. JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/jzbg4010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals use specific behaviors and skills to overcome challenges and access resources. Environmental enrichment is provided to animals in human care to both promote species-appropriate behaviors and reduce undesired behaviors. Feather pecking in birds is an undesired behavior without a clear cause. The Saint Louis Zoo houses three pairs of young Bali mynas (Leucopsar rothschildi) who pluck neck feathers from conspecifics. To reduce this behavior, animal care staff presented the birds with seven enrichment items from four categories, presenting each item twice. The enrichment included a modifiable, progressively challenging bamboo tube device at multiple levels of difficulty. While plucking was not affected by any enrichment item, we observed significant increases in locomotion and decreases in autopreening, allogrooming, and head bobbing. Leafy greens produced the greatest changes when compared to other enrichment types. Overall engagement with the progressively challenging enrichment increased with the change from the first to the second level of difficulty, and interaction with the device was highest for the third and most difficult version. These increases suggest that no habituation to the progressively challenging device occurred, while a possible neophobic effect declined with multiple uses and increased familiarity.
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Sosnowski MJ, Kano F, Brosnan SF. Oxytocin and social gaze during a dominance categorization task in tufted capuchin monkeys. Front Psychol 2022; 13:977771. [PMID: 36204767 PMCID: PMC9530993 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.977771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual attention to facial features is an important way that group-living primate species gain knowledge about others. However, where this attention is focused on the face is influenced by contextual and social features, and emerging evidence in Pan species suggests that oxytocin, a hormone involved in forming and maintaining affiliative bonds among members of the same group, influences social attention as measured by eye gaze. Specifically, bonobos tend to focus on conspecifics’ eyes when viewing two-dimensional images, whereas chimpanzees focus more on the edges of the face. Moreover, exogenous oxytocin, which was hypothesized to increase eye contact in both species, instead enhanced this existing difference. We follow up on this to (1) determine the degree to which this Pan pattern generalizes across highly social, cooperative non-ape primates and (2) explore the impact of exogenously administered vs. endogenously released oxytocin in impacting this behavior. To do so, we tracked gaze direction on a computerized social categorization task using conspecific faces in tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus [Cebus] apella) after (1) exogenously administering intranasal oxytocin using a nebulizer or (2) inducing an endogenous increase in oxytocin using fur-rubbing, previously validated to increase oxytocin in capuchins. Overall, we did not find a general tendency in the capuchins to look toward the eyes or mouth, but we found that oxytocin was related to looking behavior toward these regions, albeit not in a straightforward way. Considering frequency of looking per trial, monkeys were more likely to look at the eye region in the fur-rubbing condition as compared to either the saline or exogenous oxytocin conditions. However, in terms of duration of looking during trials in which they did look at the eye region, monkeys spent significantly less time looking at the eyes in both oxytocin conditions as compared to the saline condition. These results suggest that oxytocin did not necessarily enhance eye looking in capuchins, which is consistent with the results from Pan species, and that endogenous and exogenous oxytocin may behave differently in their effect on how social attention is allocated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan J. Sosnowski
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- *Correspondence: Meghan J. Sosnowski,
| | - Fumihiro Kano
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Kumamoto Sanctuary, Kyoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Radolfzell, Germany
| | - Sarah F. Brosnan
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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3
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Jordan EJ, Völter CJ, Seed AM. Do capuchin monkeys ( Sapajus apella) use exploration to form intuitions about physical properties? Cogn Neuropsychol 2022; 38:531-543. [PMID: 35732407 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2022.2088273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Humans' flexible innovation relies on our capacity to accurately predict objects' behaviour. These predictions may originate from a "physics-engine" in the brain which simulates our environment. To explore the evolutionary origins of intuitive physics, we investigate whether capuchin monkeys' object exploration supports learning. Two capuchin groups experienced exploration sessions involving multiple copies of two objects, one object was easily opened (functional), the other was not (non-functional). We used two within-subject conditions (enrichment-then-test, and test-only) with two object sets per group. Monkeys then underwent individual test sessions where the objects contained rewards, and they choose one to attempt to open. The monkeys spontaneously explored, performing actions which yielded functional information. At test, both groups chose functional objects above chance. While high performance of the test-only group precluded us from establishing learning during exploration, this study reveals the promise of harnessing primates' natural exploratory tendencies to understand how they see the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Jade Jordan
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Christoph J Völter
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Amanda M Seed
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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Lutz CK, Coleman K, Hopper LM, Novak MA, Perlman JE, Pomerantz O. Nonhuman primate abnormal behavior: Etiology, assessment, and treatment. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23380. [PMID: 35383995 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Across captive settings, nonhuman primates may develop an array of abnormal behaviors including stereotypic and self-injurious behavior. Abnormal behavior can indicate a state of poor welfare, since it is often associated with a suboptimal environment. However, this may not always be the case as some behaviors can develop independently of any psychological distress, be triggered in environments known to promote welfare, and be part of an animal's coping mechanism. Furthermore, not all animals develop abnormal behavior, which has led researchers to assess risk factors that differentiate individuals in the display of these behaviors. Intrinsic risk factors that have been identified include the animal's species and genetics, age, sex, temperament, and clinical condition, while environmental risk factors include variables such as the animal's rearing, housing condition, husbandry procedures, and research experiences. To identify specific triggers and at-risk animals, the expression of abnormal behavior in captive nonhuman primates should be routinely addressed in a consistent manner by appropriately trained staff. Which behaviors to assess, what assessment methods to use, which primates to monitor, and the aims of data collection should all be identified before proceeding to an intervention and/or treatment. This article provides guidance for this process, by presenting an overview of known triggers and risk factors that should be considered, steps to design a comprehensive evaluation plan, and strategies that might be used for prevention or treatment. It also outlines the tools and processes for assessing and evaluating behavior in an appendix. This process will lead to a better understanding of abnormal behavior in captive primate colonies and ultimately to improved welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrine K Lutz
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Kristine Coleman
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Lydia M Hopper
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Melinda A Novak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jaine E Perlman
- Division of Animal Resources, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ori Pomerantz
- Population and Behavioral Health Services, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Hall K, Bryant J, Staley M, Whitham JC, Miller LJ. Behavioural diversity as a potential welfare indicator for professionally managed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Exploring variations in calculating diversity using species-specific behaviours. Anim Welf 2021. [DOI: 10.7120/09627286.30.4.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Behavioural diversity may serve as a positive indicator of animal welfare that can be applied in long-term monitoring schemes in managed settings (eg zoos, laboratories, farms). Behavioural diversity is often higher when animals live in stimulating environments and experience positive
events. Unfortunately, welfare researchers have not adopted consistent, standardised approaches to measuring behavioural diversity. The goal of this exploratory study was to utilise data from 41 adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed across 16 zoological institutions to examine
various models of Shannon's Diversity Index. Specifically, we investigated the impact of: combining versus splitting behaviours, including only positive behaviours, including human interaction, and considering recipient behaviours. We evaluate how the inclusion or exclusion of different behaviours
impacts the relationship of behavioural diversity with: (i) concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM), a common indicator of adrenal activity; (ii) concentrations of immunoglobulin-A (IgA), an indicator of immune function and potential indicator of positive welfare; and (iii)
stereotypic behaviour, a validated indicator of poor welfare. Most indices had significant negative relationships with faecal GCM. Animals that express a variety of behaviours from their species-typical repertoire have lower average faecal GCM concentrations and are likely experiencing better
welfare. We did not find significant relationships between the behavioural diversity indices and IgA concentrations. Two indices were inversely associated with stereotypic behaviour. Our findings provide additional support for using Shannon's Diversity Index to calculate behavioural diversity
as a robust, valid measure of positive welfare. However, future publications must justify the process for including or excluding behaviours from calculations.
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Alejandro J, Huffman MA, Bercovitch FB. Costs and benefits of living in a vegetated, compared with non-vegetated, enclosure in male Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Zoo Biol 2021; 41:97-107. [PMID: 34734424 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Improving captive environments for primates has been an important tool to enhance animal welfare. One method has been to provide primates with naturalistic vegetated enclosures to promote species-specific behaviors, enhancing interactions with their social and natural environment, such as an increase in feeding, foraging, and positive social behaviors such as play. To investigate the benefits in which living in naturalistic environments promote general animal well-being, we observed immature and adult males living in two outdoor housed groups of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in the Kyoto University Primate Research Institute (KUPRI), Inuyama, Japan, from June of 2015 until June 2016. One enclosure was naturally vegetated and the other was not. We recorded male activity budgets, affiliative (groom, play) behaviors, and rates of agonistic interactions. To examine health status, we recorded and compared coat conditions for both groups. We found that males in the vegetated enclosure spent more time in social play than males in the non-vegetated enclosure, while males in the non-vegetated enclosure displayed more stereotypic behaviors and agonistic interactions. We recorded better coat conditions in the vegetated enclosure males while rates of social grooming or self-grooming were no different between males in the two enclosures. The males in the vegetated enclosure did not have activity budgets more similar to their wild counterparts; but they spent more time in feeding-related activities and less time resting, which was more similar to their wild counterparts than males in the non-vegetated enclosure. Our findings suggest that individuals housed in naturalistic environments have significantly greater behavioral and physical markers of wellbeing than those housed in unnatural, large outdoor enclosures. Although we found that males in both types of enclosures overall had similar time budgets to males in the wild, the detailed behavioral and health results suggest that the welfare benefits to males were greater in the vegetated enclosure, compared with non-vegetated enclosures. Efforts to mimic more natural environments should promote the well-being of primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josue Alejandro
- Department of Ecology and Social Behavior, Social Systems Evolution Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi Prefecture, Japan
| | - Michael A Huffman
- Department of Ecology and Social Behavior, Social Systems Evolution Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi Prefecture, Japan
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de la Barrera Cardozo M, Chiba de Castro WA, Aguiar LM. Stress behaviors in captive robust capuchins: Effects of humidity, visitors, management and sex. Am J Primatol 2021; 83:e23265. [PMID: 33899942 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Wild robust capuchins (Sapajus spp.) are omnivorous neotropical primates that live in relatively large groups in extensive home and daily ranges with activity budgets dominated by traveling, foraging, and object manipulation, meaning that enclosed spaces can result in significant deprivation. Space restriction, manipulation by caretakers, and the chronic presence of visitors, can disrupt the animals' welfare, altering their normal activities and inducing stress behaviors. We aimed to study the behavioral repertoire, activity budget, and frequency of stress behaviors (stereotypes and self-directed behaviors) between two captive groups of robust capuchins in a public zoo in Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, to understand how much their behavioral homeostasis has been affected. More specifically, we assessed the effect of environmental variables (temperature, relative air humidity, number of visitors, and food management) and sex on the frequency of stress behaviors. Capuchins showed a high frequency of stress behaviors, which represented around 10% of their activity budget (though the frequencies were unevenly distributed among the individuals), and traveling was positively correlated with stereotypes. We found that high relative air humidity appears to induce more stereotypes, high numbers of visitors appear to increase self-directed and vigilance behaviors and reduce stereotypes, food management can increase both kinds of stress behaviors, and females demonstrated more frequent stress behaviors than males, but individual variation may play a role. Capuchins in the group with a greater space restriction showed more stereotypes, while those in the group with more individuals showed more self-directed behaviors. Our study shows that the stress behaviors performed by the capuchins are complex and it is difficult to determine a single cause, because many traits could be involved. Despite that, this study enlightens us to direct some approaches to help these animals to meet their ecological and social needs, mitigating their stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina de la Barrera Cardozo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Neotropical, Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana - UNILA, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil
| | - Wagner A Chiba de Castro
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Neotropical, Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana - UNILA, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil
| | - Lucas M Aguiar
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Neotropical, Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana - UNILA, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil
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Gonczarowska N, Tomaz C, Caixeta FV, Malcher-Lopes R, Barros M, Nishijo H, Maior RS. CB1 receptor antagonism in capuchin monkeys alters social interaction and aversive memory extinction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:3413-3419. [PMID: 31250073 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05305-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The endocannabinoid system (eCS) is an important modulator of social anxiety and social reward, as well as memory functions. OBJECTIVES The present study evaluated the role of eCS in social interactions and aversive memory extinction in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) by blocking the cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1r). METHODS In experiment 1, spontaneous social and non-social behaviors of five capuchin males, each one living in triads with two other females, were observed after AM251 treatment (vehicle, 0.3, 1.0, and 3.0 mg/kg; i.m.). In experiment 2, seven male capuchin monkeys were trained to reach for a reward inside a wooden box. After training, they were given either vehicle or a 3.0-mg/kg i.m. dose of AM251 before a single aversive encounter with a live snake in the box. The latency to return to reach the reward inside the box in subsequent trials was measured. RESULTS The 3.0-mg/kg dose significantly increased the time spent performing self-directed behaviors, while decreasing that of social interactions. No changes were observed in vigilance or locomotion. AM251 increased the latency to reach the reward after the aversive encounter. CONCLUSION Taken together, these results suggest that CB1r antagonism induces social deficits without increasing anxiety levels and impairs the extinction of aversive memories. This behavioral profile in monkeys underscores the potential involvement of eCS signaling in the deficits observed in autism spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália Gonczarowska
- Primate Center, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, Brazil.,Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Carlos Tomaz
- Primate Center, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, Brazil.,Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, 70910-900, Brazil.,Laboratory of Neuroscience & Behavior, Universidade Ceuma, São Luis, MA, Brazil
| | - Fabio V Caixeta
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Renato Malcher-Lopes
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Marilia Barros
- Primate Center, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, Brazil.,Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | - Hisao Nishijo
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Sugitani, Toyama, 2630, Japan
| | - Rafael S Maior
- Primate Center, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, Brazil. .,Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília, Brasilia, DF, 70910-900, Brazil.
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Wooddell LJ, Beisner B, Hannibal DL, Nathman AC, McCowan B. Increased produce enrichment reduces trauma in socially-housed captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Am J Primatol 2019; 81:e23073. [PMID: 31778253 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Due to primate adaptations for sociality, captive rhesus macaques have optimal welfare and utility as a biomedical model when they can be maintained in outdoor social groups. As a despotic species; however, aggression can result in costly injuries and may result in temporary or permanent removal of specific individuals from social housing. Enrichment items, such as toys, climbing structures, and foraging material, are employed to keep captive animals occupied. We hypothesized that produce enrichment that requires more processing to extract may reduce socially-derived injuries by keeping animals occupied. We tested the effects of additional weekly produce (corn-in-husk, whole melon, or whole squash) on trauma incidence in an outdoor social group of rhesus macaques across two distinct seasons (mating and birthing seasons) at the California National Primate Research Center. Aggression and status behavioral data, food resource use and proximity, and trauma incidence were collected over two 16-week periods, with eight control and treatment conditions alternating biweekly. Mixed-effects regression modeling was used to determine the best predictors of trauma risk and severe aggression at the group level and at an individual level. We found that food resource use was an important predictor of trauma risk at both group and individual levels; greater use of food resources reduced trauma risk. Produce enrichment did not; however, reduce severe aggression. We suggest that other captive social groups of rhesus macaques with high levels of trauma may benefit from supplemental produce enrichment that increases animal engagement with food resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren J Wooddell
- Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Brianne Beisner
- Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Darcy L Hannibal
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Amy C Nathman
- Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Brenda McCowan
- Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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Ferreira VHB, Silva CPCD, Fonseca EDP, Chagas ACCSD, Pinheiro LGM, Almeida RND, Sousa MBCD, Silva HPAD, Galvão-Coelho NL, Ferreira RG. Hormonal correlates of behavioural profiles and coping strategies in captive capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Chotard H, Ioannou S, Davila-Ross M. Infrared thermal imaging: Positive and negative emotions modify the skin temperatures of monkey and ape faces. Am J Primatol 2018; 80:e22863. [PMID: 29717498 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Facial thermography has enabled researchers to noninvasively and continuously measure the changes of a range of emotional states in humans. The present work used this novel technology to study the effect of positive and negative emotions in nonhuman primates by focusing on four facial areas (the peri-orbital area, the nose bridge, the nose tip, and the upper lip). Monkeys and apes were examined for positive emotions (during interactions with toys and during tickling) and for negative emotions (during food delay and teasing). For the combined toy and tickling condition, the results indicated a drop in the nose tip temperature and a tendency of an increase in the peri-orbital temperature. For the combined food delay and teasing condition, the results also revealed a rise in the upper lip temperature of the subjects. These different effects on the facial temperatures in monkeys and apes most likely reflect distinctive physiological reactions of a primordial primate emotion system. We conclude that facial thermal imaging represents a promising physiologically grounded technology to noninvasively and continuously obtain reliable data on emotional states in nonhuman primates, which may help modernize research on emotions in nonhuman primates and enhance our understanding of the evolution of human emotions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Chotard
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanos Ioannou
- Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Medicine, Al Faisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marina Davila-Ross
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
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Validation of an Enzyme Immunoassay for Measuring Fecal Cortisol Metabolites of Bearded (Sapajus libidinosus) and Black (Sapajus nigritus) Capuchins. INT J PRIMATOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-017-9993-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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13
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Ferreira RG, Mendl M, Wagner PGC, Araujo T, Nunes D, Mafra AL. Coping strategies in captive capuchin monkeys ( Sapajus spp.). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Camargo MR, Mendes FDC. Indução do Uso de Ferramentas como Enriquecimento Ambiental para Macacos-prego (Sapajus libidinosus) Cativos. PSICOLOGIA: TEORIA E PESQUISA 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/0102-3772e32ne21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO Testamos o efeito de um aparato que pudesse induzir o uso de ferramentas no comportamento de seis macacos-prego cativos. Utilizamos “animal focal” para o tempo gasto em estados comportamentais gerais e estados indicativos de estresse, concomitantemente com “todas as ocorrências” de eventos agonísticos e de comportamentos estereotipados. O grupo mostrou perfis de orçamento de atividades diversificados, com respostas variadas aos fatores estressantes a que estavam expostos. Alguns indivíduos reduziram alguns comportamentos indicativos de estresse, porém não houve variação significativa para o grupo. Conclui-se que o aparato não foi eficiente, mostrando suas limitações como medida de enriquecimento para a espécie. Em razão dos efeitos individuais, sugerimos, no entanto, que a técnica possa ser eficaz em grupos específicos ou condições muito estressantes.
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15
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The Effect of Fission–Fusion Zoo Housing on Hormonal and Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). INT J PRIMATOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-014-9765-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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16
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Wheeler BC, Tiddi B, Kalbitzer U, Visalberghi E, Heistermann M. Methodological Considerations in the Analysis of Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites in Tufted Capuchins ( Cebus apella). INT J PRIMATOL 2013; 34:879-898. [PMID: 24098064 PMCID: PMC3789889 DOI: 10.1007/s10764-013-9703-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of fecal glucocorticoid (GC) metabolites has recently become the standard method to monitor adrenocortical activity in primates noninvasively. However, given variation in the production, metabolism, and excretion of GCs across species and even between sexes, there are no standard methods that are universally applicable. In particular, it is important to validate assays intended to measure GC production, test extraction and storage procedures, and consider the time course of GC metabolite excretion relative to the production and circulation of the native hormones. This study examines these four methodological aspects of fecal GC metabolite analysis in tufted capuchins (Cebus apella). Specifically, we conducted an adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) challenge on one male and one female capuchin to test the validity of four GC enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) and document the time course characterizing GC metabolite excretion in this species. In addition, we compare a common field-friendly technique for extracting fecal GC metabolites to an established laboratory extraction methodology and test for effects of storing "field extracts" for up to 1 yr. Results suggest that a corticosterone EIA is most sensitive to changes in GC production, provides reliable measures when extracted according to the field method, and measures GC metabolites which remain highly stable after even 12 mo of storage. Further, the time course of GC metabolite excretion is shorter than that described yet for any primate taxa. These results provide guidelines for studies of GCs in tufted capuchins, and underscore the importance of validating methods for fecal hormone analysis for each species of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Wheeler
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, 37077 Göttingen, Germany ; Courant Research Centre Evolution of Social Behaviour, University of Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Edwards KL, Walker SL, Bodenham RF, Ritchie H, Shultz S. Associations between social behaviour and adrenal activity in female Barbary macaques: consequences of study design. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2013; 186:72-9. [PMID: 23474330 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations have been used to evaluate adrenal activity in a variety of species; including as an indicator of the physiological response to social stress. However, across studies, the relationships between dominance rank, social behaviours and adrenal responses can be inconsistent. Differences in the relationship between rank and glucocorticoids may be due to the relative costs of social status, and the relative frequencies of social stressors and potential coping mechanisms. However, the differences in observed relationships between specific social behaviours and glucocorticoids may be partly explained by sampling frequency, as studies often use average fGCM concentrations collected over a period of weeks or months, rather than fGCM concentrations that are temporally-matched with behavioural data. In this study, we directly compared long-term average and temporally-matched data to determine whether particular social behaviours were related to adrenal activity in female Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Trentham Monkey Forest, UK; and whether observed relationships were consistent using these two approaches. Average rates of autogrooming were positively correlated with average fGCM; however, this relationship was not robust in temporally-matched samples. Instead, specific social behaviours associated with agonism were associated with fGCM in temporally-matched samples within individuals. These results indicate that analyses of relationships using long-term average fGCM and temporally-matched samples do not necessarily provide comparable results, highlighting that study design is critical in determining associations between an individual's social behaviour and the relative physiological costs involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie L Edwards
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
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Novak MA, Hamel AF, Kelly BJ, Dettmer AM, Meyer JS. Stress, the HPA axis, and nonhuman primate well-being: A review. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013; 143:135-149. [PMID: 23459687 PMCID: PMC3580872 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Numerous stressors are routinely encountered by wild-living primates (e.g., food scarcity, predation, aggressive interactions, and parasitism). Although many of these stressors are eliminated in laboratory environments, other stressors may be present in that access to space and social partners is often restricted. Stress affects many physiological systems including the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis, which is the focus of this review. The glucocorticoid, cortisol, is the ultimate output of this system in nonhuman primates, and levels of this hormone are used as an index of stress. Researchers can measure cortisol from several sampling matrices that include blood, saliva, urine, faeces, and hair. A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of each sampling matrix is provided to aid researchers in selecting an optimal strategy for their research. Stress and its relationship to welfare have been examined in nonhuman primates using two complimentary approaches: comparing baseline cortisol levels under different conditions, or determining the reactivity of the system through exposure to a stressor. Much of this work is focused on colony management practices and developmental models of abnormal behaviour. Certain colony practices are known to increase stress at least temporarily. Both blood sampling and relocation are examples of this effect, and efforts have been made to reduce some of the more stressful aspects of these procedures. In contrast, other colony management practices such as social housing and environmental enrichment are hypothesized to reduce stress. Testing this hypothesis by comparing baseline cortisol levels has not proved useful, probably due to "floor" effects; however, social buffering studies have shown the powerful role of social housing in mitigating reactions of nonhuman primates to stressful events. Models of abnormal behaviour come from two sources: experimentally induced alterations in early experience (e.g., nursery rearing), and the spontaneous development of behavioural pathology (e.g., self-injurious behaviour). Investigators have often assumed that abnormal behaviour is a marker for stress and thus such monkeys are predicted to have higher cortisol levels than controls. However, an emerging finding is that monkeys with abnormal behaviour are more likely to show a pattern of lowered cortisol concentrations which may reflect either an altered set point or a blunting of the stress response system. These findings parallel human clinical studies demonstrating that neuropsychiatric disorders may be associated with either increased or decreased activity of the HPA system, depending on the aetiology and manifestation of the disorder and their potential influence in provoking allostatic shifts in system functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melinda A. Novak
- Department of Psychology, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA 01002-9271, USA
| | - Amanda F. Hamel
- Neuroscience and Behavior Graduate Program, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA 01002-9271, USA
| | - Brian J. Kelly
- Department of Behavioral Sciences, Fitchburg State University 160 Pearl St., Fitchburg, MA. 01420-2697, USA
| | - Amanda M. Dettmer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 200 Lothrop St., Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jerrold S. Meyer
- Department of Psychology, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA 01002-9271, USA
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Schapiro SJ, Lambeth SP, Jacobsen KR, Williams LE, Nehete BN, Nehete PN. Physiological and Welfare Consequences of Transport, Relocation, and Acclimatization of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2012; 137:183-193. [PMID: 22773870 PMCID: PMC3388538 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Manipulations of the environments of captive nonhuman primates often have welfare consequences to the animals, including behavioral effects, and for certain manipulations, physiological effects as well. The processes of transporting, relocating, and acclimatizing nonhuman primates across facilities represent manipulations that are likely to have welfare, behavioral, and physiological consequences to the relocated animals. Seventy-two chimpanzees were relocated from the Primate Foundation of Arizona (PFA) in Arizona to the Keeling Center (KCCMR) in Texas. Animals were transported for approximately 21 h in single cages in a USDA-approved, climate-controlled trailer. Chimpanzees were weighed, anesthetized, and blood samples were collected 1) immediately prior to departure from PFA, 2) immediately upon arrival at the KCCMR, and 3) at additional time point(s) between 3 and 12 weeks after arrival at the KCCMR. Chimpanzees were quarantined in familiar pairs or social groups for 60-90 days at the KCCMR. Blood samples were analyzed for hematological and clinical chemistry parameters and compared across time points. In addition, samples from a subset of animals were assayed for cell-mediated immune parameters. Comparisons of the data obtained just prior to transport, to the data obtained immediately upon arrival, revealed numerous statistically significant differences in hematological, clinical chemistry, and immunological parameters. Some of these were indicative of stress, and thus, changes in welfare state, although many remained within the published normal ranges for chimpanzees. Additional analyses showed that many of the clinical chemistry values collected 3 to 12 weeks after arrival at the KCCMR had returned to pre-transport values. In contrast, of the cell-mediated immune parameters that were affected by transport and relocation, few had returned to pre-transport levels 8 weeks after transport, and three of the four hematology variables analyzed had not returned to pre-transport levels 12 weeks after transport. Comparisons of body weights before and immediately after transport revealed that animals lost an average of 2.5 kg during the 21-h transport, a statistically significant reduction that some animals never regained. These results demonstrate that transport and relocation affect a variety of physiological parameters with potential welfare implications and that some of these effects last as long as 3 months. These findings have important implications for the welfare and use of recently transported nonhuman primates, especially chimpanzees, in biomedical research. In order to allow animals to adapt to their new surroundings and to prevent unwanted confounds from influencing experiments, sufficient time must be provided after transport for chimpanzees to acclimatize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Schapiro
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen and University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Susan P. Lambeth
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
| | - Kirsten Rosenmaj Jacobsen
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen and University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lawrence E. Williams
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
| | - Bharti N. Nehete
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
| | - Pramod N. Nehete
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
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Fecal Glucocorticoid Measurements and Their Relation to Rearing, Behavior, and Environmental Factors in the Population of Pileated Gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) Held in European Zoos. INT J PRIMATOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-011-9532-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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21
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Does environmental enrichment reduce stress? An integrated measure of corticosterone from feathers provides a novel perspective. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17663. [PMID: 21412426 PMCID: PMC3055884 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2010] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Enrichment is widely used as tool for managing fearfulness, undesirable behaviors, and stress in captive animals, and for studying exploration and personality. Inconsistencies in previous studies of physiological and behavioral responses to enrichment led us to hypothesize that enrichment and its removal are stressful environmental changes to which the hormone corticosterone and fearfulness, activity, and exploration behaviors ought to be sensitive. We conducted two experiments with a captive population of wild-caught Clark's nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana) to assess responses to short- (10-d) and long-term (3-mo) enrichment, their removal, and the influence of novelty, within the same animal. Variation in an integrated measure of corticosterone from feathers, combined with video recordings of behaviors, suggests that how individuals perceive enrichment and its removal depends on the duration of exposure. Short- and long-term enrichment elicited different physiological responses, with the former acting as a stressor and birds exhibiting acclimation to the latter. Non-novel enrichment evoked the strongest corticosterone responses of all the treatments, suggesting that the second exposure to the same objects acted as a physiological cue, and that acclimation was overridden by negative past experience. Birds showed weak behavioral responses that were not related to corticosterone. By demonstrating that an integrated measure of glucocorticoid physiology varies significantly with changes to enrichment in the absence of agonistic interactions, our study sheds light on potential mechanisms driving physiological and behavioral responses to environmental change.
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Jacobsen KR, Mikkelsen L, Hau J. The effect of environmental enrichment on the behavior of captive tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Lab Anim (NY) 2010; 39:269-77. [DOI: 10.1038/laban0910-269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Coleman K, Maier A. The use of positive reinforcement training to reduce stereotypic behavior in rhesus macaques. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2010; 124:142-148. [PMID: 20431691 PMCID: PMC2859718 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Stereotypic behavior is a pervasive problem for captive monkeys and other animals. Once this behavior pattern has started, it can be difficult to alleviate. We tested whether or not using positive reinforcement training (PRT) can reduce this undesired behavior. Subjects for this study were 11 adult, female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with a history of locomotor stereotypy (e.g., pacing, bouncing, and somersaulting). We assessed baseline levels of stereotypic behavior and then utilized PRT to train six animals to touch a target and accept venipuncture. The other five monkeys served as controls. We assessed stereotypic behavior 1 week a month for 4 months, on days in which the monkey was not trained. Trained animals showed a significant reduction in stereotypic behavior after 1 month of training, compared to control monkeys (Mann Whitney U=28.00, P=0.02). These group differences did not persist after the first month (Month 2: Mann Whitney U=19.50, P=0.40, Month 3: Mann Whitney U=17.0, P=0.71, Month 4: Mann Whitney U=17.00, P=0.72). Still, the majority of the trained monkeys (n=4) engaged in less stereotypic behavior at the end of the study compared to baseline. Thus, training may be an effective way to reduce stereotypic behavior, at least for some individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Coleman
- Oregon National Primate Research Center 505 NW 185th Ave Beaverton, OR 97006 USA
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Environmental enrichment for maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus): group and individual effects. Anim Welf 2009. [DOI: 10.1017/s0962728600000543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractProcedures that increase foraging and exploratory behaviours are generally accepted as effective at improving welfare and reducing stereotypies in captive animals. To determine the effect of food and toy enrichment on the behaviour and hormonal levels of maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus), 11 wolves were submitted to a baseline-enrichment-baseline schedule with four enrichment conditions: food scattering, toy presentation, edible toy presentation, and a combination of food and toy conditions. Behaviour and glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (GCM) were assessed throughout the experiment. Our hypotheses were that enrichment procedures would lead to an increase in activity in the short and long term, a decrease in pacing, and a reduction in GCM concentrations. We also hypothesised that the concentrations of GCM would show a correlation with behaviour. Enrichment conditions increased immediate locomotion but did not produce long-term changes of activity nor reduced pacing. The procedures had a clear effect on individual behaviour and induced, under food enrichment conditions, an increased interest in food. Enrichment did not lead to decreased GCM concentration in the group as a whole, but there was a tendency for male and female animals to differ in hormonal reactions to environmental change. A positive correlation between GCM concentrations and pacing behaviour and a negative correlation between GCM concentrations and social behaviour were found. Results suggest that food scattering as an enrichment procedure may be used with maned wolves to enhance welfare, whilst also revealing the importance of taking individual and gender differences into account when planning enrichment techniques.
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Watters JV, Margulis SW, Atsalis S. Behavioral monitoring in zoos and aquariums: a tool for guiding husbandry and directing research. Zoo Biol 2009; 28:35-48. [PMID: 19358317 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.20207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral monitoring is the scientific collection of animal behavior data to understand normal patterns of behavior and changes in these patterns. This tool is underutilized in the zoo industry although it can be an effective indicator of many potential problems that compromise zoo animal well-being. We suggest that a behavioral monitoring program should be a core component of a zoological institution's care program. We detail the benefits of such a program and describe its components. We provide guidelines for implementing such a program and make recommendations that will help institutions to employ behavioral monitoring programs with reasonable expense. We argue that the benefits of such a program, primarily increased detection of rising or potential problems, far outweigh the minor costs of implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason V Watters
- Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, Illinois 60513, USA.
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26
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Dishman DL, Thomson DM, Karnovsky NJ. Does simple feeding enrichment raise activity levels of captive ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta)? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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27
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Jaman MF, Huffman MA. Enclosure environment affects the activity budgets of captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Am J Primatol 2008; 70:1133-44. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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28
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Fernström AL, Sutian W, Royo F, Westlund K, Nilsson T, Carlsson HE, Paramastri Y, Pamungkas J, Sajuthi D, Schapiro SJ, Hau J. Stress in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) subjected to long-distance transport and simulated transport housing conditions. Stress 2008; 11:467-76. [PMID: 18609299 DOI: 10.1080/10253890801903359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The stress associated with transportation of non-human primates used in scientific research is an important but almost unexplored part of laboratory animal husbandry. The procedures and routines concerning transport are not only important for the animals' physical health but also for their mental health as well. The transport stress in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) was studied in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 25 adult female cynomolgus monkeys were divided into five groups of five animals each that received different diets during the transport phase of the experiment. All animals were transported in conventional single animal transport cages with no visual or tactile contact with conspecifics. The animals were transported by lorry for 24 h at ambient temperatures ranging between 20 degrees C and 35 degrees C. Urine produced before, during and after transport was collected and analysed for cortisol by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). All monkeys exhibited a significant increase in cortisol excretion per time unit during the transport and on the first day following transport.Although anecdotal reports concerning diet during transport, including the provision of fruits and/or a tranquiliser, was thought likely to influence stress responses, these were not corrobated by the present study. In Experiment 2, behavioural data were collected from 18 cynomolgus macaques before and after transfer from group cages to either single or pair housing, and also before and after a simulated transport, in which the animals were housed in transport cages. The single housed monkeys were confined to single transport cages and the pair housed monkeys were kept in their pairs in double size cages. Both pair housed and singly housed monkeys showed clear behavioural signs of stress soon after their transfer out of their group cages.However, stress-associated behaviours were more prevalent in singly housed animals than in pair housed animals, and these behaviours persisted for a longer time after the simulated transport housing event than in the pair housed monkeys. Our data confirm that the transport of cynomolgus monkeys is stressful and suggest that it would be beneficial for the cynomolgus monkeys to be housed and transported in compatible pairs from the time they leave their group cages at the source country breeding facility until they arrive at their final laboratory destination in the country of use.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Fernström
- Department of Neuroscience, Comparative Medicine, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Pannozzo PL, Phillips KA, Haas ME, Mintz EM. Social Monitoring Reflects Dominance Relationships in a Small Captive Group of Brown Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella). Ethology 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2007.01392.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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30
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Lahoz MM, Nagle CA, Porta M, Farinati Z, Manzur TD. Cortisol response and ovarian hormones in juvenile and cycling female Cebus monkeys: effect of stress and dexamethasone. Am J Primatol 2007; 69:551-61. [PMID: 17177312 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We examined cortisol profiles in relation to ovarian hormones and their response to a repeated composite stressor with and without dexamethasone suppression. To evaluate the day-to-day changes in circulating cortisol relative to ovarian hormones, we subjected five adult female Cebus apella monkeys daily to restraint, sedation, transport to a neighboring room for femoral venipuncture, and return to the cage throughout the menstrual cycle. The cortisol response to the repeated stressor for blood collection, its relationship with the ovarian function, and the effects of dexamethasone were evaluated in six juveniles (18-24 months old) and five adult females in the luteal phase. Blood was sampled at time 0; then the monkeys received the vehicle and their blood was sampled again at 1, 2, 4, and 24 hr. This experiment was repeated 3 weeks later, with dexamethasone (i.m. 2 mg/Kg) injected instead of vehicle. Plasma aliquots were assayed for cortisol, progesterone, and estradiol. The results revealed that from middle infancy and throughout adulthood, hypercortisolism is the norm in female Cebus monkeys. The high cortisol values remained unchanged across the cycle despite the cyclic changes in estradiol and progesterone levels. Juvenile monkeys exhibited a higher cortisol response to stress than adults, and both juvenile and adult monkeys exhibited the typical suppression by dexamethasone. A rapid suppression of progesterone co-occurred in parallel with cortisol after dexamethasone injection in juvenile monkeys, suggesting that most circulating progesterone originates in the adrenals. In contrast, adult females exhibited an overincrement of progesterone levels, in parallel with a rise in cortisol, in response to the stressor, and this effect was exacerbated by dexamethasone. The findings suggest that hypercortisolism is insufficient to disrupt ovarian development toward a normal cyclical function, and that ovarian steroids have no influence on day-to-day circulating cortisol levels. On the other hand, the overincrement of progesterone levels induced by stress and/or glucocorticoids during the early luteal phase is unlikely to interfere with the development of this phase and implantation in this monkey species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica M Lahoz
- Centro de Educacíon Medica e Investigaciones Clínicas (CEMIC) Aires, Argentina
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31
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Keay JM, Singh J, Gaunt MC, Kaur T. Fecal glucocorticoids and their metabolites as indicators of stress in various mammalian species: a literature review. J Zoo Wildl Med 2007; 37:234-44. [PMID: 17319120 DOI: 10.1638/05-050.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Conservation medicine is a discipline in which researchers and conservationists study and respond to the dynamic interplay between animals, humans, and the environment. From a wildlife perspective, animal species are encountering stressors from numerous sources. With the rapidly increasing human population, a corresponding increased demand for food, fuel, and shelter; habitat destruction; and increased competition for natural resources, the health and well-being of wild animal populations is increasingly at risk of disease and endangerment. Scientific data are needed to measure the impact that human encroachment is having on wildlife. Nonbiased biometric data provide a means to measure the amount of stress being imposed on animals from humans, the environment, and other animals. The stress response in animals functions via glucocorticoid metabolism and is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Fecal glucocorticoids, in particular, may be an extremely useful biometric test, since sample collection is noninvasive to subjects and, therefore, does not introduce other variables that may alter assay results. For this reason, many researchers and conservationists have begun to use fecal glucocorticoids as a means to measure stress in various animal species. This review article summarizes the literature on many studies in which fecal glucocorticoids and their metabolites have been used to assess stress levels in various mammalian species. Variations between studies are the main focus of this review. Collection methods, storage conditions, shipping procedures, and laboratory techniques utilized by different researchers are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica M Keay
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, 0442 Duck Pond Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
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Can non-invasive glucocorticoid measures be used as reliable indicators of stress in animals? Anim Welf 2006. [DOI: 10.1017/s0962728600030657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
AbstractRefinement techniques are being increasingly employed in all fields of animal research to try to ensure that the highest standards of welfare are upheld. This review concerns one of the main emerging techniques for the assessment of welfare itself, namely the non-invasive measurement of glucocorticoids (GCs) as indicators of stress. The paper is divided into three sections. The first discusses the relationship between GCs and stress. The second section considers whether factors other than stress are linked to rises in GCs, eg exercise, oestrus cycle and diet. The final part examines the reliability of the non-invasive techniques that measure GCs from samples of saliva and faeces. Although it is important to take into account some caveats associated with the methodologies employed, it is concluded, nevertheless, that these techniques can give accurate and reliable information regarding the welfare status of an individual or group of animals without the procedures themselves causing any kind of distress to the subjects.
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Fox C, Merali Z, Harrison C. Therapeutic and protective effect of environmental enrichment against psychogenic and neurogenic stress. Behav Brain Res 2006; 175:1-8. [PMID: 16970997 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Revised: 08/12/2006] [Accepted: 08/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment (EE) has beneficial neurobiological, physiological and behavioral effects. The purpose of the present paper is to review the animal research literature pertaining to the impact of EE on altering physiological and behavioral anxiety outcomes. Evidence supports the view that EE attenuates responses to certain anxiety provoking situations, and that these effects persist over time. Specifically, EE attenuates behavioral anxiety-type responses and endocrine responses mediated via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis evoked by psychogenic and/or neurogenic stressors. EE is not only able to protect from excessive anxiety in response to a present stressor, but also attenuates the enduring or persistent effects engendered by past psychogenic stressor(s) such as prenatal stress or neonatal maternal separation. It is noteworthy that the protective effects of EE are particularly apparent in animals that are highly anxious or when the task is highly challenging for the subject. Various mechanisms of action of EE have been proposed, ranging from behavioral/cognitive to cellular/molecular processes. A pronounced variability in the enrichment protocols used by different investigators may account for some of the inconsistencies noted in the effect of EE on behavioral (e.g. anxiety) and endocrine (e.g. plasma corticosterone) responses. Although the occasional inconsistencies highlight the need for further research, a preponderance of the animal research data indicates that EE exerts therapeutic and protective (anxiolytic) effects against (a) impending threat, (b) enduring effects of past stressor(s) and (c) subsequent stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cosette Fox
- Wright Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB), AFRL/HEPA Branch, 2800 Q Street, Building 824, OH 45433-7022, United States
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Lambeth SP, Hau J, Perlman JE, Martino M, Schapiro SJ. Positive reinforcement training affects hematologic and serum chemistry values in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Am J Primatol 2006; 68:245-56. [PMID: 16477594 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Positive reinforcement training (PRT) techniques have received considerable attention for their stress reduction potential in the behavioral management of captive nonhuman primates. However, few published empirical studies have provided physiological data to support this position. To address this issue, PRT techniques were used to train chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to voluntarily present a leg for an intramuscular (IM) injection of anesthetic. Hematology and serum chemistry profiles were collected from healthy chimpanzees (n=128) of both sexes and various ages during their routine annual physical examinations over a 7-year period. Specific variables potentially indicative of acute stress (i.e., total white blood cell (WBC) counts, absolute segmented neutrophils (SEG), glucose (GLU) levels, and hematocrit (HCT) levels) were analyzed to determine whether the method used to administer the anesthetic (voluntary present for injection vs. involuntary injection) affected the physiological parameters. Subjects that voluntarily presented for an anesthetic injection had significantly lower mean total WBC counts, SEG, and GLU levels than subjects that were involuntarily anesthetized by more traditional means. Within-subjects analyses revealed the same pattern of results. This is one of the first data sets to objectively demonstrate that PRT for voluntary presentation of IM injections of anesthetic can significantly affect some of the physiological measures correlated with stress responses to chemical restraint in captive chimpanzees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan P Lambeth
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas 78602, USA.
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35
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Liu J, Chen Y, Guo L, Gu B, Liu H, Hou A, Liu X, Sun L, Liu D. Stereotypic behavior and fecal cortisol level in captive giant pandas in relation to environmental enrichment. Zoo Biol 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.20106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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36
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Honess PE, Marin CM. Enrichment and aggression in primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006; 30:413-36. [PMID: 16055188 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
There is considerable evidence that primates housed under impoverished conditions develop behavioural abnormalities, including, in the most extreme example, self-harming behaviour. This has implications for all contexts in which primates are maintained in captivity from laboratories to zoos since by compromising the animals' psychological well-being and allowing them to develop behavioural abnormalities their value as appropriate educational and research models is diminished. This review examines the extensive body of literature documenting attempts to improve living conditions with a view to correcting behavioural abnormalities and housing primates in such a way that they are encouraged to exhibit a more natural range and proportion of behaviours, including less self-directed and social aggression. The results of housing, feeding, physical, sensory and social enrichment efforts are examined with specific focus on their effect on aggressive behaviour and variation in their use and efficacy. It is concluded that while inappropriate or poorly distributed enrichment may encourage aggressive competition, enrichment that is species, sex, age and background appropriate can dramatically reduce aggression, can eliminate abnormal behaviour and substantially improve the welfare of primates maintained in captivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Honess
- Department of Veterinary Services, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK.
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37
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Mateo JM, Cavigelli SA. A validation of extraction methods for noninvasive sampling of glucocorticoids in free-living ground squirrels. Physiol Biochem Zool 2005; 78:1069-84. [PMID: 16228945 PMCID: PMC2562585 DOI: 10.1086/432855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Fecal hormone assays provide a powerful tool for noninvasive monitoring of endocrine status in wild animals. In this study we validated a protocol for extracting and measuring glucocorticoids in free-living and captive Belding's ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi). We first compared two commonly used extraction protocols to determine which performed better with commercially available antibodies. We next verified the preferred extraction method by correlating circulating and fecal glucocorticoid measures from a group of individuals over time. For this comparison, we used both a cortisol and a corticosterone antibody to determine which had greater affinity to the fecal metabolites. Cortisol was the primary circulating glucocorticoid, but both hormones were present in well above detectable concentrations in the blood, which does not occur in other sciurids. In addition, the cortisol antibody showed greater binding with the fecal extracts than did the corticosterone antibody. Finally, we used adrenocorticotropic hormone and dexamethasone challenges to demonstrate that changes in adrenal functioning are reflected in changing fecal corticoid levels. These results suggest that our extraction protocol provides a fast, reliable assay of stress hormones in free-living ground squirrels without the confounding influence of short-term rises in glucocorticoid concentrations caused by handling and restraint stress and that it can facilitate ecological and evolutionary studies of stress in wild species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill M Mateo
- Committee on Human Development, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA.
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38
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Evidence that zoo visitors influence HPA activity in spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyii rufiventris). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2004.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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39
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Abstract
This article provides a brief historical background of the events and circumstances that led to the 1985 Animal Welfare Act (AWA) amendments. It describes the development of the regulations promulgated by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1991 as a result of these amendments, the reasoning given for the proposals, and the revisions that were made during the process. Information is included on USDA implementation of the regulations regarding exercise for dogs and environmental enhancement for nonhuman primates. Also mentioned briefly are the requirements for socialization of marine mammals and space requirements for certain other regulated warm-blooded species. These requirements apply to animal dealers (breeders and brokers), exhibitors, commercial transporters, and research facilities. The standards for exercise and environmental enhancement were different from any others previously contained in the AWA regulations, and required more research and understanding of species-specific needs by the regulated community. Finally, this article describes some of the initiatives being undertaken by the research community and USDA-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS)-Animal Care to provide the necessary education and guidance indicated by the violation history data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie A Kulpa-Eddy
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Riverdale, MD, USA
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40
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Peel AJ, Vogelnest L, Finnigan M, Grossfeldt L, O'Brien JK. Non-invasive fecal hormone analysis and behavioral observations for monitoring stress responses in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Zoo Biol 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.20055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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41
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Dubois MJ, Gerard JF, Pontes F. Spatial selectivity to manipulate portable objects in wedge-capped capuchins (Cebus olivaceus). Primates 2004; 46:127-33. [PMID: 15549610 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-004-0114-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2003] [Accepted: 09/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We studied the manipulative activity of five wedge-capped capuchins (Cebus olivaceus) confronted with different types of unfamiliar and portable objects: wooden blocks, plastic rings, spoons, and coconuts. Combinatorial manipulations involving two portable objects of the same type were quite frequent. The lately introduced objects, whatever their kind, appeared as the most attractive. Nevertheless, some objects remained very attractive throughout the overall experiment, especially the wooden blocks which elicited more combinatorial and striking behaviors than the other objects. Concerning space, we observed that the individuals choose specific locations to perform their manipulative acts. The spatial distributions of these acts were more concentrated, and less concordant between individuals, in the present study than in two others conducted with the same group but involving the manipulation of familiar objects. This suggests that individual differences were more marked when the subjects manipulated unfamiliar objects than when they manipulated familiar ones. This finding may have applications when the members of a group have to benefit from an enrichment of their environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Jean Dubois
- Departamento de Psicologia Experimental, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém, Brazil
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42
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Meehan CL, Garner JP, Mench JA. Environmental enrichment and development of cage stereotypy in Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Dev Psychobiol 2004; 44:209-18. [PMID: 15103731 DOI: 10.1002/dev.20007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Stereotypies are abnormal repetitive behaviors that often develop in animals housed in impoverished environments. Stereotypy represents the interaction of several complex developmental phenomena. To characterize the temporal nature of stereotypy increase (escalation) and decrease (attenuation), we monitored changes in stereotypy performance in young Orange-winged Amazon parrots reared either in barren cages or cages provided with enrichments designed to facilitate foraging and locomotion. Unenriched parrots developed significantly more stereotypy than enriched parrots, and the mean time to stereotypy onset and the rate and magnitude of stereotypy increase also differed between the two groups. We then provided enrichment to the birds that had been reared in the barren cages. Following a 4-week delay, stereotypy was significantly reduced. These results show that stereotypy can be both prevented and reversed with appropriate environmental modification and illustrate how studying this behavior at many points over time can provide insights into its ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Meehan
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group/Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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43
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Wielebnowski N. Stress and distress: evaluating their impact for the well-being of zoo animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004; 223:973-7. [PMID: 14552484 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2003.223.973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Wielebnowski
- Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, 3300 Golf Rd, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA
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44
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Lynch JW, Khan MZ, Altmann J, Njahira MN, Rubenstein N. Concentrations of four fecal steroids in wild baboons: short-term storage conditions and consequences for data interpretation. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2003; 132:264-71. [PMID: 12812774 DOI: 10.1016/s0016-6480(03)00093-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
One source of both bias and "noise" in fecal steroid analysis is temporal change in steroid concentrations resulting from duration or conditions of fecal sample storage. However, no consensus currently exists regarding correct procedures or precautions necessary for fecal sample storage, and conditions vary widely within field endocrinology literature. This study considered the effects of short-term, weeks-long, storage conditions on quantifiable fecal testosterone (fT), glucocorticoids (fGC), estrogens (fE), and progestagen (fP) metabolite concentrations in wild baboons (Papio cynocephalus). Quadruplicate subsamples of fecal samples (n=29) collected at Amboseli National Park and its environs were subjected to four different storage conditions prior to lyophilization, in order to determine the effects of storage on subsequent steroid concentrations, as assessed by 125I radioimmunoassays. As expected, the best alternative to the "initial condition" of lyophilization at three days after collection was to freeze fecal samples at -20 degrees C for two weeks prior to lyophilization. This storage method resulted in no significant change from initial steroid concentrations for fE, fT, or fP, although fGC showed a slight but significant decline. Storage for two weeks in a charcoal refrigerator caused a mean increase in all four steroid concentrations. However, the results from this storage condition were robust in terms of practical questions asked of the data: fE and fP values still reflected pregnant versus non-pregnant states in baboon females; a fGC profile constructed by age class resembled that created from the samples from the initial condition, although slightly inflated across age classes; and there were only moderate changes in relative fT concentrations across adult males. Knowledge of the effects of storage upon each steroid analyzed within one's study is a necessary component in determining the optimal compromise for storage protocol in a particular research project.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Lynch
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.
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45
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Lynch JW, Ziegler TE, Strier KB. Individual and seasonal variation in fecal testosterone and cortisol levels of wild male tufted capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella nigritus. Horm Behav 2002; 41:275-87. [PMID: 11971661 DOI: 10.1006/hbeh.2002.1772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study tested the "challenge hypothesis" and rank-based predictions for temporal steroid production in male tufted capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella. Fecal samples (n = 209) collected from six wild males were analyzed for testosterone and cortisol concentration by enzyme immunoassay. The temporal pattern in male steroid production was compared to female sexual activity and rates of male aggression. The top-ranking adult male did not differ from other adult males in testosterone or cortisol concentration. Mean adult testosterone was significantly higher than mean subadult testosterone throughout the year. There was a clear elevation of testosterone and cortisol in both adult and subadult males during the peak of adult female sexual activity after the birth season. In fact, the magnitude of increase in testosterone was higher than predicted for a species with low male-male aggression. However, there was no difference between nonbreeding baseline testosterone levels during the birth season, and the "breeding" baseline of testosterone in males found during asynchronous female sexual activity. Of all behavioral indices examined, the distribution of female-maintained consortships was the best predictor of mean adult male testosterone concentrations. Although in many species, elevated testosterone coincides with increased male-male aggression, in the present study, the sustained high-magnitude increase in steroids during the peak of adult female sexual activity was associated with a relatively low rate of male-male intragroup aggression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica W Lynch
- Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.
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46
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Wielebnowski NC, Fletchall N, Carlstead K, Busso JM, Brown JL. Noninvasive assessment of adrenal activity associated with husbandry and behavioral factors in the North American clouded leopard population. Zoo Biol 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.10005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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47
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Champoux M, Hwang L, Lang O, Levine S. Feeding demand conditions and plasma cortisol in socially-housed squirrel monkey mother-infant dyads. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2001; 26:461-77. [PMID: 11337131 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(01)00006-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that experimentally altering the accessibility and availability of food can have profound impact on behavior and adrenocortical activity in nonhuman primate species. In this study, groups of mother-infant squirrel monkey dyads were housed in either high demand (HFD: 120% normal daily food intake provided), low demand (LFD: 600% normal daily food intake provided) or variable demand (VFD: alternating two-week blocks of low demand and high demand) conditions for 12 weeks. During the 12-week experimental foraging phase, animals in the HFD group exhibited prolonged and consistent cortisol elevations. The cortisol levels in the VFD group reflected the ambient demand condition, with higher levels exhibited during the high demand phases of the study, and lower values when the low demand condition was in effect. Overall, mothers were more affected by the experimental manipulation than were infants. The experimental condition did not affect the infants' response to a 24-h separation from their mothers. A suppression of cortisol levels, particularly in the HFD group, was observed upon resumption of ad-libitum feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Champoux
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, Stanford, USA.
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48
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Bahr NI, Palme R, Möhle U, Hodges JK, Heistermann M. Comparative aspects of the metabolism and excretion of cortisol in three individual nonhuman primates. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2000; 117:427-38. [PMID: 10764553 DOI: 10.1006/gcen.1999.7431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A radiometabolism study is described to provide the first comparative data on the time course, route, and characteristics of excreted [3H]cortisol metabolites in three nonhuman primates: the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), the long-tailed macaque (Macacafascicularis), and the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). A low dose (40-100 microCi) of 3H-labeled cortisol was administered intravenously to one adult male of each species and the excreta collected over a 5-day period postinjection. The major proportion of radioactivity was excreted in the urine (>80%). Peak radioactivity in urine was recovered within 5.5 h following injection in all three species, while in the feces peak levels of radioactivity were recovered within 26 h postinjection. In all three species, urinary metabolites were primarily excreted as conjugates (61-87%), whereas the percentage of conjugated metabolites in feces was 50% or less. The number and relative abundance of urinary and fecal [3H]cortisol metabolites were determined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and immunoreactivity of the radioactivity peaks was assessed by screening HPLC fractions with established cortisol, corticosterone, and 11-oxoetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassays (EIA), the latter being a group-specific assay for measuring 11,17-dioxoandrostanes. HPLC separation of urinary and fecal extracts revealed multiple peaks of radioactivity, several of which were common to all three species. The relative proportion of these peaks, however, differed considerably among species and between urine and feces. HPLC indicated that native cortisol was a major urinary excretory product in the marmoset, while comparatively small amounts were present in the urine of the macaque and chimpanzee. In contrast, in feces, cortisol was only detected in low amounts in the marmoset and was virtually absent in the macaque and chimpanzee. In all three species, one of the major radioactivity peaks showed a retention time comparable to 11-oxoetiocholanolone and high immunoreactivity in the 11-oxoetiocholanolone EIA. The measurement of urinary- and/or fecal-immunoreactive 11,17-dioxoandrostanes is therefore implicated for noninvasive assessment of adrenal function in Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, and great apes.
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Affiliation(s)
- N I Bahr
- Department of Reproductive Biology, Germany Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
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49
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Boinski S, Gross TS, Davis JK. Terrestrial predator alarm vocalizations are a valid monitor of stress in captive brown capuchins (Cebus apella). Zoo Biol 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2361(1999)18:4<295::aid-zoo4>3.0.co;2-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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