Striatal efferents preferentially innervate neurons in the ventral pallidum containing GABAA receptor alpha 1 subunit-like immunoreactivity

Cocaine effects on mouse incentive-learning and human addiction are linked to alpha2 subunit-containing GABAA receptors

Because GABA(A) receptors containing alpha2 subunits are highly represented in areas of the brain, such as nucleus accumbens (NAcc), frontal cortex, and amygdala, regions intimately involved in signaling motivation and reward, we hypothesized that manipulations of this receptor subtype would influence processing of rewards. Voltage-clamp recordings from NAcc medium spiny neurons of mice with alpha2 gene deletion showed reduced synaptic GABA(A) receptor-mediated responses. Behaviorally, the deletion abolished cocaine's ability to potentiate behaviors conditioned to rewards (conditioned reinforcement), and to support behavioral sensitization. In mice with a point mutation in the benzodiazepine binding pocket of alpha2-GABA(A) receptors (alpha2H101R), GABAergic neurotransmission in medium spiny neurons was identical to that of WT (i.e., the mutation was silent), but importantly, receptor function was now facilitated by the atypical benzodiazepine Ro 15-4513 (ethyl 8-amido-5,6-dihydro-5-methyl-6-oxo-4H-imidazo [1,5-a] [1,4] benzodiazepine-3-carboxylate). In alpha2H101R, but not WT mice, Ro 15-4513 administered directly into the NAcc-stimulated locomotor activity, and when given systemically and repeatedly, induced behavioral sensitization. These data indicate that activation of alpha2-GABA(A) receptors (most likely in NAcc) is both necessary and sufficient for behavioral sensitization. Consistent with a role of these receptors in addiction, we found specific markers and haplotypes of the GABRA2 gene to be associated with human cocaine addiction.

Deficits in substance P mRNA levels in the CeA are inversely associated with alcohol-motivated responding

In the present study, in vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to determine the relationship between innate substance P (SP) levels and alcohol-motivated behavior in alcohol-preferring (P) and nonpreferring (NP) rat lines. In Experiment 1, in situ hybridization and quantitative autoradiography were used to detect and measure SP mRNA levels in discrete brain loci of the P and NP rats. The results indicated significantly lower SP mRNA levels in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) of P compared with those of NP rats. Experiment 2 evaluated the effects of SP, microinfused into the CeA, on alcohol (10%, v/v) and sucrose (2%, w/v) motivated responding in the P rat. The results revealed that, when infused into the CeA (1-8 microg), SP reduced alcohol responding by 48-85% of control levels, with no effects on sucrose responding. Neuroanatomical control infusions (1-8 microg) into the caudate putamen (CPu) also failed to significantly alter alcohol- or sucrose-motivated behaviors. Given the selective reductions on alcohol (compared to sucrose) responding by direct intracranial infusion of SP, the data suggest that deficits in SP signaling within the CeA (an anxiety regulating locus) are inversely associated with alcohol-motivated behaviors. Activation of SP receptors in the CeA may reduce anxiety-like behavior in the P rat and contribute to reductions on alcohol responding. The SP system may be a suitable target for the development of drugs to reduce alcohol-drinking behavior in humans.

Neurokinin-1 receptors in cholinergic neurons of the rat ventral pallidum have a predominantly dendritic distribution that is affected by apomorphine when combined with startle-evoking auditory stimulation

Cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain are implicated in startle reflex inhibition by a prior weak stimulus often referred to as prepulse inhibition (PPI) and used as an index of sensorimotor gating deficits in schizophrenia. Gating deficits can be produced in rodent models by acute systemic administration of apomorphine, a non-selective dopamine D1 and D2 receptor agonist that also affects trafficking of neurokinin-1 (NK(1)) receptors induced by startle evoking auditory stimulation (AS) in midbrain neurons. We used electron microscopic immunolabeling of NK(1) receptors and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAchT) to test the hypothesis that the subcellular distributions of these receptors in cholinergic neurons of the rat ventral pallidum are subject to a similar regulation. In vehicle controls, NK(1) immunogold was often seen near cytoplasmic endomembranes in somata and large dendrites, but was more equally distributed in cytoplasmic and plasmalemmal compartments of medium dendrites, and principally located on the plasma membrane of small dendrites. These labeling patterns appeared to be largely independent of whether the NK(1) receptor was co-expressed with VAchT, however only the medium and small VAchT-labeled dendrites showed significant treatment-specific differences in NK(1) immunogold distributions. The NK(1) receptor immunogold particle density on the plasma membrane of medium cholinergic dendrites was significantly enhanced by combined apomorphine and AS, while neither alone affected either the plasmalemmal density or the equality of the plasmalemmal and cytoplasmic distributions of NK(1) receptors in these dendrites. Small cholinergic dendrites showed a significant AS-induced increase in both the plasmalemmal and cytoplasmic density of NK(1) gold particles, and an apomorphine-induced disruption of the preferential plasmalemmal targeting of the NK(1) receptors. These results provide ultrastructural evidence that NK(1) receptors in cholinergic neurons of the ventral pallidum have subcellular locations and plasticity conducive to active involvement in dopamine-dependent sensorimotor processing.

3,4-Methylenedioxymetamphetamine (ecstasy) induces c-fos-like protein and mRNA in rat organotypic dorsal striatal slices

3,4-Methylenedioxymetamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy") is an increasingly abused drug, which has significant effects on the dopamine system in the striatum. The isolated single organotypic slice model allows investigation of the effects of drugs of abuse on the expression of transcription factors in the striatum without dopaminergic and glutamatergic interactions. In this study the effects of MDMA on the expression of c-fos mRNA by in situ hybridization as well as the c-fos-like protein by immunohistochemistry in isolated dorsal striatum was investigated. It was shown that 100 microM MDMA induced c-fos mRNA expression 30 min after treatment. Expression of c-fos-like protein was transiently detected 3 h afterwards. The c-fos expression was inhibited by MK 801 and metoclopramide, indicating the involvement of dopaminergic D2 receptors and glutamatergic NMDA receptors. The dopaminergic D1 receptor antagonist SCH 23390 did not affect c-fos expression. We conclude that MDMA treatment leads to the induction of c-fos expression in isolated rat striatal slices. This effect is independent of extrinsic neuronal circuitry and seems to be associated with direct interactions between MDMA and the dopamine/glutamate receptor system.

GABA- and glutamate-evoked responses in the rat ventral pallidum are modulated by dopamine

Microiontophoresis was used to investigate the influence of dopamine on GABA- and glutamate-induced responses from ventral pallidal neurons recorded extracellularly in chloral hydrate-anaesthetized rats. Modulation was determined by comparing dopamine-induced alterations in amino acid-induced activity ('signal') with dopamine-induced effects on spontaneous firing ('noise'). A dopamine ejection current-response curve was generated to determine the current levels that did not alter spontaneous firing ('subthreshold') and those that produced approximately 50% of the maximal dopamine-induced response (ECur50). Co-iontophoresis of dopamine with GABA generally diminished the inhibitory influence of GABA on pallidal neuron firing; 70% of neurons tested with ECur50 dopamine demonstrated a decrease in the signal-to-noise ratio whereas 10% displayed an increase. At subthreshold dopamine ejection currents, 59% of neurons responded with a decrease and 18% responded with an increase in the GABA signal-to-noise ratio. When ECur50 dopamine was co-iontophoresed with glutamate, 84% of the neurons displayed a decrease in the signal-to-noise ratio for glutamate-evoked excitations whereas 11% demonstrated an increase. Subthreshold dopamine ejection currents decreased the signal-to-noise ratio in 62% of the ventral pallidal neurons excited by glutamate and increased the ratio in 23%. These data illustrate that dopamine substantially alters GABA- and glutamate-evoked responses even at ejection currents that are below those necessary to change spontaneous firing. Thus, it appears that neuromodulation is an important means by which dopamine influences ventral pallidal neuronal activity.