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Ozawa M, Uchida H, Watanabe R, Numano S, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Takahashi K, Lum WM, Benico G, Iwataki M, Suzuki T. New azaspiracid analogues detected as bi-charged ions in Azadinium poporum (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) isolated from Japanese coastal waters. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2024; 1236:124065. [PMID: 38460449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine biotoxin azaspiracids (AZAs) are produced by dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma. Recently, several strains of Azadinium poporum were isolated from Japanese coastal waters, and detailed toxin profiles of two strains (mdd421 and HM536) among them were clarified by several detection techniques on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOFMS). In our present study, AZA analogues in seven strains of A. poporum from Japanese coastal waters (including two previously reported strains) were determined by these detection techniques. The dominant AZA in the seven strains was AZA2 accompanied by small amounts of several known AZAs and twelve new AZA analogues. Eight of the twelve new AZA analogues discovered in our present study were detected as bi-charged ions on the positive mode LC/MS/MS. This is the first report describing AZA analogues detected as bi-charged ions with hexose and sulfate groups in their structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Ozawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Numano
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Kazuya Takahashi
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Wai Mun Lum
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan; Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Garry Benico
- Department of Biological Sciences, Central Luzon State University, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
| | - Mitsunori Iwataki
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
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2
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Yang J, Sun W, Sun M, Cui Y, Wang L. Current Research Status of Azaspiracids. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:79. [PMID: 38393050 PMCID: PMC10890026 DOI: 10.3390/md22020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence and impact of toxins have been detected in various regions worldwide ever since the discovery of azaspiracids (AZAs) in 1995. These toxins have had detrimental effects on marine resource utilization, marine environmental protection, and fishery production. Over the course of more than two decades of research and development, scientists from all over the world have conducted comprehensive studies on the in vivo metabolism, in vitro synthesis methods, pathogenic mechanisms, and toxicology of these toxins. This paper aims to provide a systematic introduction to the discovery, distribution, pathogenic mechanism, in vivo biosynthesis, and in vitro artificial synthesis of AZA toxins. Additionally, it will summarize various detection methods employed over the past 20 years, along with their advantages and disadvantages. This effort will contribute to the future development of rapid detection technologies and the invention of detection devices for AZAs in marine environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lianghua Wang
- Basic Medical College, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; (J.Y.); (W.S.); (M.S.); (Y.C.)
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3
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Peña LF, González-Andrés P, Parte LG, Escribano R, Guerra J, Barbero A, López E. Continuous Flow Chemistry: A Novel Technology for the Synthesis of Marine Drugs. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:402. [PMID: 37504932 PMCID: PMC10381277 DOI: 10.3390/md21070402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In this perspective, we showcase the benefits of continuous flow chemistry and photochemistry and how these valuable tools have contributed to the synthesis of organic scaffolds from the marine environment. These technologies have not only facilitated previously described synthetic pathways, but also opened new opportunities in the preparation of novel organic molecules with remarkable pharmacological properties which can be used in drug discovery programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura F Peña
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Paula González-Andrés
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Lucía G Parte
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Raúl Escribano
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Javier Guerra
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Asunción Barbero
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - Enol López
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Campus Miguel Delibes, University of Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
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4
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Vaccaro E, Ciccotelli V, Oliveri P, Battistini R, Capelli C, Lottici S, Melchiorre N, Smirnova E, Ferro M, Costa E, Betti B, Vivaldi B, Masotti C, Serracca L, Iacona F, Orlandi M, Ercolini C. Shellfish sanitation monitoring in La Spezia gulf: Chemometric evaluation of data from 2015 to 2021. Heliyon 2023; 9:e17032. [PMID: 37383211 PMCID: PMC10293677 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Shellfish sanitary controls are very important to guarantee consumer health because bivalve molluscs (BVM) are filter-feeders so they can accumulate pathogens, environmental contaminants and biotoxins produced by some algae, causing infections and food poisoning in humans after ingestion. The purpose of this work was to analyse with chemometric methods the historical data relating to routine analyses carried out by the competent authority (Liguria Local Health Unit, National Health Service) on the BVM reared in a shellfish farm located in the Gulf of La Spezia (Italy). Chemometric analysis was aimed at identifying any correlations between the variables, as well as any seasonal trends and similarities between the stations, in order to be able to provide further material for a more accurate risk assessment and to improve the monitoring organization for example by reducing sampling stations and/or sampling frequency. The dataset used included 31 variables classified as biotoxicological, microbiological and chemical variables, measured twice a week, monthly or half yearly respectively, for a total of 6 years (from 2015 to 2021), on samples of Mytilus galloprovincialis coming from 7 monitoring stations. The results obtained by the application of principal component analysis have shown positive alga-biotoxin correlations, as well as seasonal trends linked to algae growth, with a greater algal biomass and their toxins during the spring months. In addition, periods characterised by low rainfall were found to affect algal development, promoting especially species such as Dinophysis spp. Considering the microbiological and biotoxicological variables, significant differences between the monitoring stations were not found. However, stations could be distinguished on the basis of the nature of the predominant chemical pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Vaccaro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Valentina Ciccotelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Paolo Oliveri
- Dipartimento di Farmacia (DIFAR), Università degli Studi di, Genova, Italy
| | - Roberta Battistini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Erica Costa
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Food and Animal Origin, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Barbara Betti
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Food and Animal Origin, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Barbara Vivaldi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Chiara Masotti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Laura Serracca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesco Iacona
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Food and Animal Origin, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Mino Orlandi
- Liguria Local Health Unit-ASL5, Complex Unit of Hygiene of Food and Animal Origin, La Spezia, Italy
| | - Carlo Ercolini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Turin, Italy
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Tebben J, Zurhelle C, Tubaro A, Samdal IA, Krock B, Kilcoyne J, Sosa S, Trainer VL, Deeds JR, Tillmann U. Structure and toxicity of AZA-59, an azaspiracid shellfish poisoning toxin produced by Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae). HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 124:102388. [PMID: 37164556 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
To date, the putative shellfish toxin azaspiracid 59 (AZA-59) produced by Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) has been the only AZA found in isolates from the Pacific Northwest coast of the USA (Northeast Pacific Ocean). Anecdotal reports of sporadic diarrhetic shellfish poisoning-like illness, with the absence of DSP toxin or Vibrio contamination, led to efforts to look for other potential toxins, such as AZAs, in water and shellfish from the region. A. poporum was found in Puget Sound and the outer coast of Washington State, USA, and a novel AZA (putative AZA-59) was detected in low quantities in SPATT resins and shellfish. Here, an A. poporum strain from Puget Sound was mass-cultured and AZA-59 was subsequently purified and structurally characterized. In vitro cytotoxicity of AZA-59 towards Jurkat T lymphocytes and acute intraperitoneal toxicity in mice in comparison to AZA-1 allowed the derivation of a provisional toxicity equivalency factor of 0.8 for AZA-59. Quantification of AZA-59 using ELISA and LC-MS/MS yielded reasonable quantitative results when AZA-1 was used as an external reference standard. This study assesses the toxic potency of AZA-59 and will inform guidelines for its potential monitoring in case of increasing toxin levels in edible shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Tebben
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany.
| | - Christian Zurhelle
- University of Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Chemistry, Leobener Straße 6, Bremen, 28359, Germany
| | - Aurelia Tubaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, Trieste, 34127, Italy
| | | | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Silvio Sosa
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, Trieste, 34127, Italy
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Olympic Natural Resources Center, University of Washington, 1455 S. Forks Ave, Forks, WA 98331, United States
| | - Jonathan R Deeds
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Regulatory Science, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, Maryland, 20740, United States of America
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Section Ecological Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany.
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6
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Samdal IA, Sandvik M, Vu J, Sukenthirarasa MS, Kanesamurthy S, Løvberg KLE, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Wright EJ, Miles CO. Preparation and characterization of an immunoaffinity column for the selective extraction of azaspiracids. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1207:123360. [PMID: 35839625 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of azaspiracids (AZAs) in shellfish may cause food poisoning in humans. AZAs can accumulate in shellfish filtering seawater that contains marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. More than 60 AZA analogues have been identified, of which AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3 are regulated in Europe. Shellfish matrices may complicate quantitation by ELISA and LC-MS methods. Polyclonal antibodies have been developed that bind specifically to the C-26-C-40 domain of the AZA structure and could potentially be used for selectively extracting compounds containing this substructure. This includes almost all known analogues of AZAs, including AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3. Here we report preparation of immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) columns for clean-up and concentration of AZAs. The IAC columns were prepared by coupling polyclonal anti-AZA IgG to CNBr-activated sepharose. The columns were evaluated using shellfish extracts, and the resulting fractions were analyzed by ELISA and LC-MS. The columns selectively bound over 300 ng AZAs per mL of gel without significant leakage, and did not retain the okadaic acid, cyclic imine, pectenotoxin and yessotoxin analogues that were present in the applied samples. Furthermore, 90-92% of the AZAs were recovered by elution with 90% MeOH, and the columns could be re-used without significant loss of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway.
| | - Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Jennie Vu
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | - Merii S Sukenthirarasa
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sinthuja Kanesamurthy
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore H91 R673, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43220, United States
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
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7
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Shen SM, Appendino G, Guo YW. Pitfalls in the structural elucidation of small molecules. A critical analysis of a decade of structural misassignments of marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:1803-1832. [PMID: 35770685 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00023g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Covering: July 2010 to August 2021This article summarizes more than 200 cases of misassigned marine natural products reported between July 2010 and August 2021, sorting out errors according to the structural elements. Based on a comparative analysis of the original and the revised structures, major pitfalls still plaguing the structural elucidation of small molecules were identified, emphasizing the role of total synthesis, crystallography, as well as chemical- and biosynthetic logic to complement spectroscopic data. Distinct "trends" in natural product misassignment are evident between compounds of marine and plant origin, with an overall much lower incidence of "impossible" structures within misassigned marine natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shou-Mao Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China. .,School of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Giovanni Appendino
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Universitá degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale, Largo Donegani 2, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Yue-Wei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China. .,Drug Discovery Shandong Laboratory, Bohai Rim Advanced Research Institute for Drug Discovery, Yantai, Shandong 264117, China
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8
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Otero P, Silva M. Emerging Marine Biotoxins in European Waters: Potential Risks and Analytical Challenges. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:199. [PMID: 35323498 PMCID: PMC8955394 DOI: 10.3390/md20030199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms pose a challenge regarding food safety due to their erratic nature and forming circumstances which are yet to be disclosed. The best strategy to protect human consumers is through legislation and monitoring strategies. Global warming and anthropological intervention aided the migration and establishment of emerging toxin producers into Europe's temperate waters, creating a new threat to human public health. The lack of information, standards, and reference materials delay effective solutions, being a matter of urgent resolution. In this work, the recent findings of the presence of emerging azaspiracids, spirolildes, pinnatoxins, gymnodimines, palitoxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, and tetrodotoxins on European Coasts are addressed. The information concerning emerging toxins such as new matrices, locations, and toxicity assays is paramount to set the risk assessment guidelines, regulatory levels, and analytical methodology that would protect the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
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9
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Sandvik M, Miles CO, Løvberg KLE, Kryuchkov F, Wright EJ, Mudge EM, Kilcoyne J, Samdal IA. In Vitro Metabolism of Azaspiracids 1-3 with a Hepatopancreatic Fraction from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:11322-11335. [PMID: 34533950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins produced by the marine dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. that can accumulate in shellfish and cause food poisoning in humans. Of the 60 AZAs identified, levels of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 are regulated in shellfish as a food safety measure based on occurrence and toxicity. Information about the metabolism of AZAs in shellfish is limited. Therefore, a fraction of blue mussel hepatopancreas was made to study the metabolism of AZA1-3 in vitro. A range of AZA metabolites were detected by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry analysis, most notably the novel 22α-hydroxymethylAZAs AZA65 and AZA66, which were also detected in naturally contaminated mussels. These appear to be the first intermediates in the metabolic conversion of AZA1 and AZA2 to their corresponding 22α-carboxyAZAs (AZA17 and AZA19). α-Hydroxylation at C-23 was also a prominent metabolic pathway, producing AZA8, AZA12, and AZA5 as major metabolites of AZA1-3, respectively, and AZA67 and AZA68 as minor metabolites via double-hydroxylation of AZA1 and AZA2, but only low levels of 3β-hydroxylation were observed in this study. In vitro generation of algal toxin metabolites, such as AZA3, AZA5, AZA6, AZA8, AZA12, AZA17, AZA19, AZA65, and AZA66 that would otherwise have to be laboriously purified from shellfish, has the potential to be used for the production of standards for analytical and toxicological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | | | - Fedor Kryuchkov
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth M Mudge
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
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10
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Ozawa M, Uchida H, Watanabe R, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Takahashi K, Iwataki M, Suzuki T. Complex profiles of azaspiracid analogues in two culture strains of Azadinium poporum (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) isolated from Japanese coastal waters determined by LC-MS/MS. Toxicon 2021; 199:145-155. [PMID: 34166679 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine biotoxins azaspiracids (AZAs) are produced by dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma. Recently, several strains of Azadinium poporum were isolated from Japanese coastal waters. In our present study, AZA analogues in two strains (mdd421 and HM536) of A. poporum were analyzed by several detection techniques on the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOFMS). The dominant AZA analogue in the Japanese A. poporum strains was AZA2. Other known AZA analogues were AZA11, AZA35, AZA2 methyl ester and AZA2 phosphate ester. Besides these AZAs, thirteen new AZA analogues were discovered in the two strains. A putative AZA analogue (Compound 1) with the smallest molecular weight ever found in nature was also discovered in the two strains. This is the first report describing detailed AZA profiles in Japanese isolates of A. poporum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Ozawa
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan; Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Kazuya Takahashi
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Mitsunori Iwataki
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
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11
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Bresnan E, Arévalo F, Belin C, Branco MAC, Cembella AD, Clarke D, Correa J, Davidson K, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Lozano RF, Fernández-Tejedor M, Guðfinnsson H, Carbonell DJ, Laza-Martinez A, Lemoine M, Lewis AM, Menéndez LM, Maskrey BH, McKinney A, Pazos Y, Revilla M, Siano R, Silva A, Swan S, Turner AD, Schweibold L, Provoost P, Enevoldsen H. Diversity and regional distribution of harmful algal events along the Atlantic margin of Europe. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 102:101976. [PMID: 33875184 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The IOC-ICES-PICES Harmful Algal Event Database (HAEDAT) was used to describe the diversity and spatiotemporal distribution of harmful algal events along the Atlantic margin of Europe from 1987 - 2018. The majority of events recorded are caused by Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins (DSTs). These events are recorded annually over a wide geographic area from southern Spain to northern Scotland and Iceland, and are responsible for annual closures of many shellfish harvesting areas. The dominant causative dinoflagellates, members of the morphospecies 'Dinophysis acuminata complex' and D. acuta, are common in the waters of the majority of countries affected. There are regional differences in the causative species associated with PST events; the coasts of Spain and Portugal with the dinoflagellates Alexandrium minutum and Gymnodinium catenatum, north west France/south west England/south Ireland with A. minutum, and Scotland/Faroe Islands/Iceland with A. catenella. This can influence the duration and spatial scale of PST events as well as the toxicity of shellfish. The diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis is the most widespread Domoic Acid (DA) producer, with records coming from Spain, Portugal, France, Ireland and the UK. Amnesic Shellfish Toxins (ASTs) have caused prolonged closures for the scallop fishing industry due to the slow depuration rate of DA. Amendments to EU shellfish hygiene regulations introduced between 2002 and 2005 facilitated end-product testing and sale of adductor muscle. This reduced the impact of ASTs on the scallop fishing industry and thus the number of recorded HAEDAT events. Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recent toxin group responsible for events to be characterised in the ICES area. Events associated with AZAs have a discrete distribution with the majority recorded along the west coast of Ireland. Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) has been an emerging issue in the Canary Islands and Madeira since 2004. The majority of aquaculture and wild fish mortality events are associated with blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi and raphidophyte Heterosigma akashiwo. Such fish killing events occur infrequently yet can cause significant mortalities. Interannual variability was observed in the annual number of HAEDAT areas with events associated with individual shellfish toxin groups. HABs represent a continued risk for the aquaculture industry along the Atlantic margin of Europe and should be accounted for when considering expansion of the industry or operational shifts to offshore areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Bresnan
- Marine Scotland Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, AB11 9DB, U.K..
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Catherine Belin
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) VIGIES F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Maria A C Branco
- Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | - Dave Clarke
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Jorge Correa
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Aitor Laza-Martinez
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Maud Lemoine
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) VIGIES F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Adam M Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Luz Mamán Menéndez
- Laboratorio de Control de Calidad de los Recursos Pesqueros, Huelva, Spain
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - April McKinney
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast, BT9 5PX, U.K
| | - Yolanda Pazos
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Marta Revilla
- AZTI, Marine Research Division, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), E-20110 Pasaia, Spain
| | - Raffaele Siano
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER), DYNECO F-29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Alexandra Silva
- Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sarah Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | | | | | - Henrik Enevoldsen
- IOC Science and Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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12
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Boente-Juncal A, Raposo-García S, Louzao MC, Vale C, Botana LM. Targeting Chloride Ion Channels: New Insights into the Mechanism of Action of the Marine Toxin Azaspiracid. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:865-879. [PMID: 33512997 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins produced by dinoflagellates belonging to the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma that caused human intoxications after consumption of contaminated fishery products, such as mussels. However, the exact mechanism for the AZA induced cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects is still unknown. In this study several pharmacological approaches were employed to evaluate the role of anion channels on the AZA effects that demonstrated that cellular anion dysregulation was involved in the toxic effects of these compounds. The results presented here demonstrated that volume regulated anion channels (VRACs) are affected by this group of toxins, and, because there is not any specific activator of VRACs besides the intracellular application of GTPγ-S molecule, this group of natural compounds could represent a powerful tool to analyze the role of these channels in cellular homeostasis. In addition to this, in this work, a detailed pharmacological approach was performed in order to elucidate the anion channels present in human HEK293 cells as well as their regulation by the marine toxins azaspiracids. Altogether, the data presented here demonstrated that the effect of azaspiracids in human cells was completely dependent on ATP-regulated anion channels, whose upregulation by these toxins could lead to regulatory volume decrease and underlie the reported toxicity of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - Sandra Raposo-García
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
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13
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Adams NG, Tillmann U, Trainer VL. Temporal and spatial distribution of Azadinium species in the inland and coastal waters of the Pacific northwest in 2014-2018. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101874. [PMID: 33129464 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids, produced by some species of the dinoflagellate genera Azadinium and Amphidoma, can cause a syndrome in humans called azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP). In 1995, mussels from the Irish west coast contaminated with azaspiracids were, for the first time, linked to this human illness that has symptoms of nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, and stomach cramps. The only confirmed cases of AZP to date in the United States occurred in Washington State in 2008 from mussels imported from Ireland. Shortly after this case, several others involving similar gastrointestinal symptoms were reported by shellfish consumers from Washington State. However, no detectable diarrhetic shellfish toxins or Vibrio contamination were found. Cursory analysis of Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) samplers suggested the presence of azaspiracids in Washington State waters and motivated a study to evaluate the presence and distribution of Azadinium species in the region. During the spring and summer months of 2014-2015, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses detected the presence of the toxigenic species Azadinium poporum and A. spinosum on the outer coast and throughout the inland waters of Washington State. In 2016-2018, standard curves developed using A. poporum isolated from Puget Sound and A. spinosum isolated from the North Sea were used to quantify abundances of up to 10,525 cells L-1 of A. poporum and 156 cells L-1 of A. spinosum at shore-based sites. Abundances up to 1,206 cells L-1 of A. poporum and 30 cells L-1 of A. spinosum were measured in the coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest in 2017. Other harmful genera, including Alexandrium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia, were observed using light microscopy at coastal sites where A. poporum was also observed. In some samples where both A. poporum and A. spinosum were absent, an Amphidomataceae-specific qPCR assay indicated that other species of Azadinium or Amphidoma were present. The identification of Azadinium species in the PNW demonstrates the need to assess their toxicity and to incorporate their routine detection in monitoring programs to aid resource managers in mitigating risks to azaspiracid shellfish poisoning in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolaus G Adams
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112, USA.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12 D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112, USA
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14
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Dai X, Bill BD, Adams NG, Tillmann U, Sloan C, Lu D, Trainer VL. The effect of temperature and salinity on growth rate and azaspiracid cell quotas in two strains of Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) from Puget Sound, Washington State. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 89:101665. [PMID: 31672233 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 09/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are novel lipophilic polyether marine biotoxins associated with azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP). Azaspiracid-59 (AZA-59) is a new AZA that was recently detected in strains of Azadinium poporum from Puget Sound, Washington State. In order to understand how environmental factors affect AZA abundances in Puget Sound, a laboratory experiment was conducted with two local strains of A. poporum to estimate the growth rate and AZA-59 (both intra- and extracellular) cell quotas along temperature and salinity gradients. Both strains of A. poporum grew across a wide range of temperatures (6.7 °C to 25.0 °C), and salinities (15 to 35). Growth rates increased with increasing temperature up to 20.0 °C, with a range from 0.10 d-1 to 0.42 d-1. Both strains of A. poporum showed variable growth rates from 0.26 d-1 to 0.38 d-1 at salinities from 15 to 35. The percentage of intracellular AZA-59 in both strains was generally higher in exponential than in stationary phase along temperature and salinity gradients, indicating higher retention of toxin in actively growing cells. Cellular toxin quotas varied by strain in both the temperature and salinity treatments but were highest at the lowest growth rates, especially for the faster growing strain, NWFSC1011. Consistent with laboratory experiments, field investigations in Sequim Bay, WA, during 2016-2018 showed that A. poporum was detected when salinity and temperature became favorable to higher growth rates in June and July. Although current field data of A. poporum in Puget Sound indicate a generally low abundance, the potential of local A. poporum to adapt to and grow in a wide range of temperature and salinity may open future windows for blooms. Although increased temperatures, anticipated for the Puget Sound region over the next decades, will enhance the growth of A. poporum, these higher temperatures will not necessarily support higher toxin cell quotas. Additional sampling and assessment of the total toxicity of AZA-59 will provide the basis for a more accurate estimation of risk for azaspiracid poisoning in Puget Sound shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinfeng Dai
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem and Biogeochemistry, State Oceanic Administration, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou, 310012, China; Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA, 98112, USA.
| | - Brian D Bill
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA, 98112, USA
| | - Nicolaus G Adams
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA, 98112, USA
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Catherine Sloan
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA, 98112, USA
| | - Douding Lu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem and Biogeochemistry, State Oceanic Administration, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou, 310012, China
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA, 98112, USA.
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15
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Woodward JR, Pitchford JW, Bees MA. Physical flow effects can dictate plankton population dynamics. J R Soc Interface 2019; 16:20190247. [PMID: 31387480 PMCID: PMC6731511 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2019.0247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Oceanic flows do not necessarily mix planktonic species. Differences in individual organisms’ physical and hydrodynamic properties can cause changes in drift normal to the mean flow, leading to segregation between species. This physically driven heterogeneity may have important consequences at the scale of population dynamics. Here, we describe how one form of physical forcing, circulating flows with different inertia effects between phytoplankton and zooplankton, can dramatically alter excitable plankton bloom dynamics. This may impact our understanding of the initiation and development of harmful algal blooms (HABs), which have significant negative ecological and socio-economic consequences. We study this system in detail, providing spatio-temporal dynamics for particular scenarios and summarizing large-scale behaviour via spatially averaged bifurcation diagrams. The key message is that, across a large range of parameter values, fluid flow can induce plankton blooms and mean-field population dynamics that are distinct from those predicted for well-mixed systems. The implications for oceanic population dynamic studies are manifest: we argue that the formation of HABs will depend strongly on the physical and biological state of the ecosystem, and that local increases in zooplankton heterogeneity are likely to precede phytoplankton blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Woodward
- Department of Mathematics, University of York, York, UK
| | | | - M A Bees
- Department of Mathematics, University of York, York, UK
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16
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Effects of Temperature, Growth Media, and Photoperiod on Growth and Toxin Production of Azadinium spinosum. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17090489. [PMID: 31443393 PMCID: PMC6780083 DOI: 10.3390/md17090489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are microalgal toxins that can accumulate in shellfish and lead to human intoxications. To facilitate their study and subsequent biomonitoring, purification from microalgae rather than shellfish is preferable; however, challenges remain with respect to maximizing toxin yields. The impacts of temperature, growth media, and photoperiod on cell densities and toxin production in Azadinium spinosum were investigated. Final cell densities were similar at 10 and 18 °C, while toxin cell quotas were higher (~3.5-fold) at 10 °C. A comparison of culture media showed higher cell densities and AZA cell quotas (2.5-5-fold) in f10k compared to f/2 and L1 media. Photoperiod also showed differences, with lower cell densities in the 8:16 L:D treatment, while toxin cell quotas were similar for 12:12 and 8:16 L:D treatments but slightly lower for the 16:8 L:D treatment. AZA1, -2 and -33 were detected during the exponential phase, while some known and new AZAs were only detected once the stationary phase was reached. These compounds were additionally detected in field water samples during an AZA event.
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17
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Dhanji-Rapkova M, O'Neill A, Maskrey BH, Coates L, Swan SC, Teixeira Alves M, Kelly RJ, Hatfield RG, Rowland-Pilgrim SJ, Lewis AM, Turner AD. Variability and profiles of lipophilic toxins in bivalves from Great Britain during five and a half years of monitoring: azaspiracids and yessotoxins. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 87:101629. [PMID: 31349886 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cefas has been responsible for the delivery of official control biotoxin testing of bivalve molluscs from Great Britain for just over a decade. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) methodology has been used for the quantitation of lipophilic toxins (LTs) since 2011. The temporal and spatial distribution of okadaic acid group toxins and profiles in bivalves between 2011 and 2016 have been recently reported. Here we present data on the two other groups of regulated lipophilic toxins, azaspiracids (AZAs) and yessotoxins (YTXs), over the same period. The latter group has also been investigated for a potential link with Protoceratium reticulatum and Lingulodinium polyedra, both previously recognised as YTXs producing phytoplankton. On average, AZAs were quantified in 3.2% of all tested samples but notable inter-annual variation in abundance was observed. The majority of all AZA contaminated samples were found between July 2011 and August 2013 in Scotland, while only two, three-month long, AZA events were observed in 2015 and 2016 in the south-west of England. Maximum concentrations were generally reached in late summer or early autumn. Reasons for AZAs persistence during the 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 winters are discussed. Only one toxin profile was identified, represented by both AZA1 and AZA2 toxins at an approximate ratio of 2 : 1, suggesting a single microalgal species was the source of AZAs in British bivalves. Although AZA1 was always the most dominant toxin, its proportion varied between mussels, Pacific oysters and surf clams. The YTXs were the least represented group among regulated LTs. YTXs were found almost exclusively on the south-west coast of Scotland, with the exception of 2013, when the majority of contaminated samples originated from the Shetland Islands. The highest levels were recorded in the summer months and followed a spike in Protoceratium reticulatum cell densities. YTX was the most dominant toxin in shellfish, further strengthening the link to P. reticulatum as the YTX source. Neither homo-YTX, nor 45-OH homo-YTX were detected throughout the monitored period. 45-OH YTX, thought to be a shellfish metabolite associated with YTX elimination, contributed on average 26% in mussels. Although the correlation between 45-OH YTX abundance and the speed of YTX depuration could not be confirmed, we noted the half-life of YTX was more than two-times longer in queen scallops, which contained 100% YTX, than in mussels. No other bivalve species were affected by YTXs. This is the first detailed evaluation of AZAs and YTXs occurrences and their profiles in shellfish from Great Britain over a period of multiple years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
| | - Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah C Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca J Kelly
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie J Rowland-Pilgrim
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Adam M Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
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Azaspiracids Increase Mitochondrial Dehydrogenases Activity in Hepatocytes: Involvement of Potassium and Chloride Ions. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17050276. [PMID: 31072021 PMCID: PMC6562809 DOI: 10.3390/md17050276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins that are produced by Azadinium and Amphidoma dinoflagellates that can contaminate edible shellfish inducing a foodborne poisoning in humans, which is characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms. Among these, AZA1, -2, and -3 are regulated in the European Union, being the most important in terms of occurrence and toxicity. In vivo studies in mice showed that, in addition to gastrointestinal effects, AZA1 induces liver alterations that are visible as a swollen organ, with the presence of hepatocellular fat droplets and vacuoles. Hence, an in vitro study was carried out to investigate the effects of AZA1, -2, and -3 on liver cells, using human non-tumor IHH hepatocytes. RESULTS The exposure of IHH cells to AZA1, -2, or -3 (5 × 10-12-1 × 10-7 M) for 24 h did not affect the cell viability and proliferation (Sulforhodamine B assay and 3H-Thymidine incorporation assay), but they induced a significant concentration-dependent increase of mitochondrial dehydrogenases activity (MTT reduction assay). This effect depends on the activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I and II, being counteracted by rotenone and tenoyl trifluoroacetone, respectively. Furthermore, AZAs-increased mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity was almost totally suppressed in the K+-, Cl--, and Na+-free media and sensitive to the specific inhibitors of KATP and hERG potassium channels, Na+/K+, ATPase, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channels. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that AZA mitochondrial effects in hepatocytes derive from an imbalance of intracellular levels of K+ and, in particular, Cl- ions, as demonstrated by the selective reduction of toxin effects by CFTR chloride channel inhibition.
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19
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Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Kristoffersen AB, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. A Practical ELISA for Azaspiracids in Shellfish via Development of a New Plate-Coating Antigen. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:2369-2376. [PMID: 30763083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that appear periodically in shellfish and can cause food poisoning in humans. Current methods for quantifying the regulated AZAs are restricted to LC-MS but are not well suited to detecting novel and unregulated AZAs. An ELISA method for total AZAs in shellfish was reported recently, but unfortunately, it used relatively large amounts of the AZA-1-containing plate-coating conjugate, consuming significant amounts of pure AZA-1 per assay. Therefore, a new plate-coater, OVA-cdiAZA1 was produced, resulting in an ELISA with a working range of 0.30-4.1 ng/mL and a limit of quantification of 37 μg/kg for AZA-1 in shellfish. This ELISA was nearly twice as sensitive as the previous ELISA while using 5-fold less plate-coater. The new ELISA displayed broad cross-reactivity toward AZAs, detecting all available quantitative AZA reference materials as well as the precursors to AZA-3 and AZA-6, and results from shellfish analyzed with the new ELISA showed excellent correlation ( R2 = 0.99) with total AZA-1-10 by LC-MS. The results suggest that the new ELISA is suitable for screening samples for total AZAs, even in cases where novel AZAs are present and regulated AZAs are absent, such as was reported recently from Puget Sound and the Bay of Naples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | | | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre , Hamilton 3214 , New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , The Ohio State University , Columbus , Ohio 43220 , United States
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- National Research Council Canada , 1411 Oxford St , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
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20
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Tebben J, Trefault N, Gu H. Two novel azaspiracids from Azadinium poporum, and a comprehensive compilation of azaspiracids produced by Amphidomataceae, (Dinophyceae). HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 82:1-8. [PMID: 30928006 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Two novel azaspiracids (AZA) with a molecular mass of 869 Da were found in Pacific strains of Azadinium poporum and characterized by tandem mass spectrometry and high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). One compound, AZA-42, was found in Az. poporum strains AZFC25 and AZFC26, both isolated from the South China Sea. AZA-42 belongs to the 360-type AZA that in comparison to AZA-1 has an additional double bond in the F-I ring system of AZA comprising C28-C40. The other compound, AZA-62, was detected in Az. poporum strain 1D5 isolated off Chañaral, Northern Chile. Mass spectral data indicate that AZA-62 is a variant of AZA-11 with an additional double bond in the C1-C9 region of AZA. In addition to the description of the two novel AZA, a comprehensive list of all AZA known to be produced by species of the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma comprising 26 AZA variants is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Jan Tebben
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nicole Trefault
- GEMA Center for Genomics, Ecology & Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
| | - Haifeng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen 361005, China
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Tamele IJ, Silva M, Vasconcelos V. The Incidence of Marine Toxins and the Associated Seafood Poisoning Episodes in the African Countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E58. [PMID: 30669603 PMCID: PMC6357038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and bacteria can be one of the great threats to public health due to their ability to produce marine toxins (MTs). The most reported MTs include paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), amnesic shellfish toxins (ASTs), diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), cyclic imines (CIs), ciguatoxins (CTXs), azaspiracids (AZTs), palytoxin (PlTXs), tetrodotoxins (TTXs) and their analogs, some of them leading to fatal outcomes. MTs have been reported in several marine organisms causing human poisoning incidents since these organisms constitute the food basis of coastal human populations. In African countries of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, to date, only South Africa has a specific monitoring program for MTs and some other countries count only with respect to centers of seafood poisoning control. Therefore, the aim of this review is to evaluate the occurrence of MTs and associated poisoning episodes as a contribution to public health and monitoring programs as an MT risk assessment tool for this geographic region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro José Tamele
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Institute of Biomedical Science Abel Salazar, University of Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. Julius Nyerere, n 3453, Campus Principal, Maputo 257, Mozambique.
| | - Marisa Silva
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-238 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
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Abstract
Azaspiracid-34 (AZA34) is a recently described structurally unique member of the azaspiracid class of marine neurotoxins. Its novel structure, tentatively assigned on the basis of MS and 1H NMR spectroscopy, is accompanied by a 5.5-fold higher level of toxicity against Jurkat T lymphocytes than AZA1. To completely assign the structure of AZA34 and provide material for in-depth biological evaluation and detection, synthetic access to AZA34 was targeted. This began with the convergent and stereoselective assembly of the C1-C19 domain of AZA34 designed to dovetail with the recent total synthesis approach to AZA3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony A Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , The Ohio State University , Columbus , Ohio 43210 , United States
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , The Ohio State University , Columbus , Ohio 43210 , United States
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Identification of 21,22-Dehydroazaspiracids in Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) and in Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracid-26. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2018; 81:885-893. [PMID: 29488755 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma, pelagic marine dinoflagellates that may accumulate in shellfish resulting in human illness following consumption. The complexity of these toxins has been well documented, with more than 40 structural variants reported that are produced by dinoflagellates, result from metabolism in shellfish, or are extraction artifacts. Approximately 34 μg of a new AZA with MW 823 Da (AZA26 (3)) was isolated from blue mussels ( Mytilus edulis), and its structure determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. AZA26, possibly a bioconversion product of AZA5, lacked the C-20-C-21 diol present in all AZAs reported thus far and had a 21,22-olefin and a keto group at C-23. Toxicological assessment of 3 using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cells showed the potency to be ∼30-fold lower than that of AZA1. The corresponding 21,22-dehydro-23-oxo-analogue of AZA10 (AZA28) and 21,22-dehydro analogues of AZA3, -4, -5, -6, -9, and -10 (AZA25, -48 (4), -60, -27, -49, and -61, respectively) were also identified by HRMS/MS, periodate cleavage reactivity, conversion from known analogues, and NMR (for 4 that was present in a partially purified sample of AZA7).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore , Co. Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council Canada , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Michael J Twiner
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Detroit Receiving Hospital , Wayne State University , Detroit , Michigan 48202 , United States
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oslo , N-0315 Oslo , Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu , 44311 Nantes , France
| | - Alistair L Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council Canada , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo , Norway
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Miles CO, Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Giddings SD, Waaler T, Rundberget T, Samdal IA, Løvberg KE. Selective Extraction and Purification of Azaspiracids from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) Using Boric Acid Gel. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:2962-2969. [PMID: 29502403 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids belong to a family of more than 50 polyether toxins originating from marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum. All of the azaspiracids reported thus far contain a 21,22-dihydroxy group. Boric acid gel can bind selectively to compounds containing vic-diols or α-hydroxycarboxylic acids via formation of reversible boronate complexes. Here we report use of the gel to selectively capture and release azaspiracids from extracts of blue mussels. Analysis of the extracts and fractions by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) showed that this procedure resulted in an excellent cleanup of the azaspiracids in the extract. Analysis by enzyme-linked immunoasorbent assay (ELISA) and LC-MS indicated that most azaspiracid analogues were recovered in good yield by this procedure. The capacity of boric acid gel for azaspiracids was at least 50 μg/g, making this procedure suitable for use in the early stages of preparative purification of azaspiracids. In addition to its potential for concentration of dilute samples, the extensive cleanup provided by boric acid gel fractionation of azaspiracids in mussel samples almost eliminated matrix effects during subsequent LC-MS and could be expected to reduce matrix effects during ELISA analysis. The method may therefore prove useful for quantitative analysis of azaspiracids as part of monitoring programs. Although LC-MS data showed that okadaic acid analogues also bound to the gel, this was much less efficient than for azaspiracids under the conditions used. The boric acid gel methodology is potentially applicable to other important groups of natural toxins containing diols including ciguatoxins, palytoxins, pectenotoxins, tetrodotoxin, trichothecenes, and toxin glycosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- Measurement Science and Standards , National Research Council , 1411 Oxford Street , Halifax , Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| | - Thor Waaler
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Thomas Rundberget
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research , N-0349 Oslo , Norway
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum , N-0106 Oslo , Norway
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25
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Kenton NT, Adu‐Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO, Forsyth CJ. Stereochemical Definition of the Natural Product (6
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)‐Azaspiracid‐3 by Total Synthesis and Comparative Analyses. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:810-813. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201711008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Daniel Adu‐Ampratwum
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Antony A. Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada 1411 Oxford St. Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, RinvilleOranmore, Co. Galway Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Oslo 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
- Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of Waikato Private Bag 3105 3240 Hamilton New Zealand
| | - Christopher O. Miles
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada 1411 Oxford St. Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
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26
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Kenton NT, Adu‐Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, Zhang Z, Chen Y, Nguyen S, Xu J, Ding Y, McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO, Forsyth CJ. Total Synthesis of (6
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)‐Azaspiracid‐3 Reveals Non‐Identity with the Natural Product. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:805-809. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201711006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Daniel Adu‐Ampratwum
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Antony A. Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Zhigao Zhang
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yong Chen
- Asymchem Life Science No. 71 7th Ave., TEDA Tianjin 300000 P. R. China
| | - Son Nguyen
- Johnson Matthey Pharma Services 25 Patton Road Devens MA 01434 USA
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yue Ding
- Viva Biotech Ltd. 581 Shenkuo Rd., Pudong District Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, RinvilleOranmore, Co. Galway Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Oslo 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
- Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of Waikato Private Bag 3105 3240 Hamilton New Zealand
| | - Christopher O. Miles
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
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27
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Kenton NT, Adu‐Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO, Forsyth CJ. Stereochemical Definition of the Natural Product (6
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)‐Azaspiracid‐3 by Total Synthesis and Comparative Analyses. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201711008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Daniel Adu‐Ampratwum
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Antony A. Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada 1411 Oxford St. Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, RinvilleOranmore, Co. Galway Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Oslo 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
- Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of Waikato Private Bag 3105 3240 Hamilton New Zealand
| | - Christopher O. Miles
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada 1411 Oxford St. Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
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Kenton NT, Adu‐Ampratwum D, Okumu AA, Zhang Z, Chen Y, Nguyen S, Xu J, Ding Y, McCarron P, Kilcoyne J, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO, Forsyth CJ. Total Synthesis of (6
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)‐Azaspiracid‐3 Reveals Non‐Identity with the Natural Product. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201711006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel T. Kenton
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Daniel Adu‐Ampratwum
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Antony A. Okumu
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
| | - Zhigao Zhang
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yong Chen
- Asymchem Life Science No. 71 7th Ave., TEDA Tianjin 300000 P. R. China
| | - Son Nguyen
- Johnson Matthey Pharma Services 25 Patton Road Devens MA 01434 USA
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Shanghai Hengrui Pharmaceutical Inc. No. 279 Wenjing Road Shanghai 200245 P. R. China
| | - Yue Ding
- Viva Biotech Ltd. 581 Shenkuo Rd., Pudong District Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, RinvilleOranmore, Co. Galway Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of Oslo 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Alistair L. Wilkins
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
- Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of Waikato Private Bag 3105 3240 Hamilton New Zealand
| | - Christopher O. Miles
- Measurement Science and StandardsNational Research Council of Canada Halifax Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1 Canada
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute P.O. Box 750 Sentrum 0106 Oslo Norway
| | - Craig J. Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe Ohio State University 151 W. Woodruff Ave Columbus OH 43210 USA
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Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) after acute oral exposure of azaspiracid 1, -2 and -3 in mice. Toxicol Lett 2017; 282:136-146. [PMID: 29107028 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine algal toxins that can be accumulated by edible shellfish to cause a foodborne gastrointestinal poisoning in humans. In the European Union, only AZA1, -2 and -3 are currently regulated and their concentration in shellfish is determined through their toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) derived from the intraperitoneal lethal potency in mice. Nevertheless, considering the potential human exposure by oral route, AZAs TEFs should be calculated by comparative oral toxicity data. Thus, the acute oral toxicity of AZA1, -2 and -3 was investigated in female CD-1 mice treated with different doses (AZA1: 135-1100μg/kg; AZA2 and AZA3: 300-1100μg/kg) and sacrificed after 24h or 14days. TEFs derived from the median lethal doses (LD50) were 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5, respectively for AZA1, -2 and -3. In fact, after 24h from gavage administration, LD50s were 443μg/kg (AZA1; 95% CL: 350-561μg/kg), 626μg/kg (AZA2; 95% CL: 430-911μg/kg) and 875μg/kg (AZA3; 95% CL: 757-1010μg/kg). Mice dead more than 5h after the treatment or those sacrificed after 24h (doses: ≥175μg AZA1/kg, ≥500μg AZA2/kg and ≥600μg AZA3/kg) showed enlarged pale liver, while increased serum markers of liver alteration were recorded even at the lowest doses. Blood chemistry revealed significantly increased serum levels of K+ ions (≥500mg/kg), whereas light microscopy showed tissue changes in the gastrointestinal tract, liver and spleen. No lethality, macroscopic, tissue or haematological changes were recorded two weeks post exposure, indicating reversible toxic effects. LC-MS/MS analysis of the main organs showed a dose-dependency in gastrointestinal absorption of these toxins: at 24h, the highest levels were detected in the stomach and, in descending order, in the intestinal content, liver, small intestine, kidneys, lungs, large intestine, heart as well as detectable traces in the brain. After 14days, AZA1 and AZA2 were still detectable in almost all the organs and intestinal content.
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Rossi R, Dell'Aversano C, Krock B, Ciminiello P, Percopo I, Tillmann U, Soprano V, Zingone A. Mediterranean Azadinium dexteroporum (Dinophyceae) produces six novel azaspiracids and azaspiracid-35: a structural study by a multi-platform mass spectrometry approach. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 409:1121-1134. [PMID: 27822651 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-0037-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Azadinium dexteroporum is the first species of the genus described from the Mediterranean Sea and it produces different azaspiracids (AZA). The aims of this work were to characterize the toxin profile of the species and gain structural information on azaspiracids produced by the A. dexteroporum strain SZN-B848 isolated from the Gulf of Naples. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyses were carried out on three MS systems having different ion source geometries (ESI, TurboIonSpray®, ESI ION MAX) and different MS analyzers operating either at unit resolution or at high resolution, namely a hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap (Q-Trap MS), a time of flight (TOF MS), and a hybrid linear ion trap Orbitrap XL Fourier transform mass spectrometer (LTQ Orbitrap XL FTMS). As a combined result of these different analyses, A. dexteroporum showed to produce AZA-35, previously reported from Azadinium spinosum, and six compounds that represent new additions to the AZA-group of toxins, including AZA-54 to AZA-58 and 3-epiAZA-7, a stereoisomer of the shellfish metabolite AZA-7. Based on the interpretation of fragmentation patterns, we propose that all these molecules, except AZA-55, have the same A to I ring system as AZA-1, with structural modifications all located in the carboxylic side chain. Considering that none of the azaspiracids produced by the Mediterranean strain of A. dexteroporum is currently regulated by European food safety authorities, monitoring programs of marine biotoxins in the Mediterranean area should take into account the occurrence of the new analogues to avoid an underestimation of the AZA-related risk for seafood consumers. Graphical Abstract A multi-platform MS approach reveals known and new azaspiracids in a Mediterranean strain of Azadinium dexteroporum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachele Rossi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Carmela Dell'Aversano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy.
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Patrizia Ciminiello
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy
| | - Isabella Percopo
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Napoli, Italy
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Vittorio Soprano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Adriana Zingone
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Napoli, Italy.
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Suzuki T. Regulatory Levels, Monitoring System of Shellfish Toxins and Instrumental Analyses. Food Hygiene and Safety Science (Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi) 2016; 57:117-131. [PMID: 27784862 DOI: 10.3358/shokueishi.57.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Doerr B, O'Halloran J, O'Brien N, van Pelt F. Investigation of the genotoxic potential of the marine biotoxins azaspiracid 1-3. Toxicon 2016; 121:61-69. [PMID: 27576062 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recently discovered group of biotoxins and are the cause of azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP) in humans. To date over thirty analogues have been identified. However, toxicological studies of AZAs are limited due to the lack of availability of toxins and toxin standards. Most data available are on acute toxicity and there are no data available on genotoxicity of AZAs. This study presents an integrated approach investigating the genotoxic potential of AZA1-3 in cell culture systems using the Comet assay combined with assays to provide information on possible apoptotic processes, cytotoxicity and changes in cell number. Results demonstrate a time and dose dependent increase in DNA fragmentation in most cell lines, indicating a genotoxic effect of AZA1-3. However, a significant reduction in cell number and a clear shift from early to late apoptosis was observed for all analogues in Jurkat T cells and HepG-2 cells; CaCo-2 cells did not show a clear apoptotic profile. Late apoptotic/necrotic cells correlate well with the percentage of tail DNA for all analogues in all three cell lines. All data taken together indicate that AZA1-3 is not genotoxic per se and demonstrate apoptotic/necrotic processes to be involved to some extent in AZAs toxicity. The sensitivities of cell lines and the different potencies of AZA1-3 are in agreement with the literature available. The order of sensitivity for all three AZAs tested in the present study is, in increasing order, CaCo-2 cells < HepG-2 cells < Jurkat T cells. The order of potency of AZA1-3 varies among the cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Doerr
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - John O'Halloran
- Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Nora O'Brien
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Frank van Pelt
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Hess P, Miles CO. Effects of Heating on Proportions of Azaspiracids 1-10 in Mussels (Mytilus edulis) and Identification of Carboxylated Precursors for Azaspiracids 5, 10, 13, and 15. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:10980-10987. [PMID: 26631586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins that induce human illness following the consumption of contaminated shellfish. European Union regulation stipulates that only raw shellfish are tested, yet shellfish are often cooked prior to consumption. Analysis of raw and heat-treated mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs revealed significant differences (up to 4.6-fold) in AZA1-3 (1-3) and 6 (6) values due to heat-induced chemical conversions. Consistent with previous studies, high levels of 3 and 6 were detected in some samples that were otherwise below the limit of quantitation before heating. Relative to 1, in heat-treated mussels the average (n = 40) levels of 3 (range, 11-502%) and 6 (range, 3-170%) were 62 and 31%, respectively. AZA4 (4) (range, <1-27%), AZA5 (5) (range, 1-21%), and AZA8 (8) (range, 1-27%) were each ∼5%, whereas AZA7 (7), AZA9 (9), and AZA10 (10) (range, <1-8%) were each under 1.5%. Levels of 5, 10, AZA13 (13), and AZA15 (15) increased after heating, leading to the identification of novel carboxylated AZA precursors in raw shellfish extracts, which were shown by deuterium labeling to be precursors for 5, 10, 13, and 15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, Ireland
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council Canada , Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Philipp Hess
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Ifremer , Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
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Hjørnevik LV, Frøyset AK, Grønset TA, Rungruangsak-Torrissen K, Fladmark KE. Algal Toxin Azaspiracid-1 Induces Early Neuronal Differentiation and Alters Peripherin Isoform Stoichiometry. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7390-402. [PMID: 26694421 PMCID: PMC4699245 DOI: 10.3390/md13127072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid-1 is an algal toxin that accumulates in edible mussels, and ingestion may result in human illness as manifested by vomiting and diarrhoea. When injected into mice, it causes neurotoxicological symptoms and death. Although it is well known that azaspiracid-1 is toxic to most cells and cell lines, little is known about its biological target(s). A rat PC12 cell line, commonly used as a model for the peripheral nervous system, was used to study the neurotoxicological effects of azaspiracid-1. Azaspiracid-1 induced differentiation-related morphological changes followed by a latter cell death. The differentiated phenotype showed peripherin-labelled neurite-like processes simultaneously as a specific isoform of peripherin was down-regulated. The precise mechanism behind this down-regulation remains uncertain. However, this study provides new insights into the neurological effects of azaspiracid-1 and into the biological significance of specific isoforms of peripherin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda V Hjørnevik
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Ann K Frøyset
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | - Toril A Grønset
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
| | | | - Kari E Fladmark
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, N-5008 Bergen, Norway.
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35
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Potvin É, Jeong HJ, Drebing W, Kilcoyne J, Al-Jorani A, Twiner MJ, Göthel Q, Köck M. Structure Elucidation and in Vitro Toxicity of New Azaspiracids Isolated from the Marine Dinoflagellate Azadinium poporum. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6687-702. [PMID: 26528990 PMCID: PMC4663548 DOI: 10.3390/md13116687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Two strains of Azadinium poporum, one from the Korean West coast and the other from the North Sea, were mass cultured for isolation of new azaspiracids. Approximately 0.9 mg of pure AZA-36 (1) and 1.3 mg of pure AZA-37 (2) were isolated from the Korean (870 L) and North Sea (120 L) strains, respectively. The structures were determined to be 3-hydroxy-8-methyl-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (1) and 3-hydroxy-7,8-dihydro-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (2) by ¹H- and (13)C-NMR. Using the Jurkat T lymphocyte cell toxicity assay, (1) and (2) were found to be 6- and 3-fold less toxic than AZA-1, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Éric Potvin
- Division of Polar Ocean Environment, Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon 406-840, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Wolfgang Drebing
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, H91 R673, Ireland; E-Mail:
| | - Ahmed Al-Jorani
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Michael J. Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Qun Göthel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Matthias Köck
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
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Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Xu J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. Development of an ELISA for the Detection of Azaspiracids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7855-7861. [PMID: 26245830 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that cause food poisoning in humans. These toxins are produced by small marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum and accumulate in shellfish. Ovine polyclonal antibodies were produced and used to develop an ELISA for quantitating AZAs in shellfish, algal cells, and culture supernatants. Immunizing antigens were prepared from synthetic fragments of the constant region of AZAs, while plate coating antigen was prepared from AZA-1. The ELISA provides a sensitive and rapid analytical method for screening large numbers of samples. It has a working range of 0.45-8.6 ng/mL and a limit of quantitation for total AZAs in whole shellfish at 57 μg/kg, well below the maximum permitted level set by the European Commission. The ELISA has good cross-reactivity to AZA-1-10, -33, and -34 and 37-epi-AZA-1. Naturally contaminated Irish mussels gave similar results whether they were cooked or uncooked, indicating that the ELISA also detects 22-carboxy-AZA metabolites (e.g., AZA-17 and AZA-19). ELISA results showed excellent correlation with LC-MS/MS analysis, both for mussel extract spiked with AZA-1 and for naturally contaminated Irish mussels. The assay is therefore well suited to screening for AZAs in shellfish samples intended for human consumption, as well as for studies on AZA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch, Ruakura, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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Kilcoyne J, Twiner MJ, McCarron P, Crain S, Giddings SD, Foley B, Rise F, Hess P, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Structure Elucidation, Relative LC-MS Response and In Vitro Toxicity of Azaspiracids 7-10 Isolated from Mussels (Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:5083-5091. [PMID: 25909151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that can accumulate in shellfish, which if consumed can lead to poisoning events. AZA7-10, 7-10, were isolated from shellfish and their structures, previously proposed on the basis of only LC-MS/MS data, were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. Purified AZA4-6, 4-6, and 7-10 were accurately quantitated by qNMR and used to assay cytotoxicity with Jurkat T lymphocyte cells for the first time. LC-MS(MS) molar response studies performed using isocratic and gradient elution in both selected ion monitoring and selected reaction monitoring modes showed that responses for the analogues ranged from 0.3 to 1.2 relative to AZA1, 1. All AZA analogues tested were cytotoxic to Jurkat T lymphocyte cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner; however, there were distinct differences in their EC50 values, with the potencies for each analogue being: AZA6 > AZA8 > AZA1 > AZA4 ≈ AZA9 > AZA5 ≈ AZA10. This data contributes to the understanding of the structure-activity relationships of AZAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- †Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Michael J Twiner
- §School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Pearse McCarron
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sheila Crain
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Sabrina D Giddings
- ⊥Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Barry Foley
- ‡School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dublin Institute of Technology, Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Frode Rise
- ∥Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, N-0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Philipp Hess
- ▽Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France
| | | | - Christopher O Miles
- ○Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106 Oslo Norway
- #Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo Norway
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Abstract
Different clinical types of algae-related poisoning have attracted scientific and commercial attention: paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). Bioassays are common methods for the determination of marine biotoxins. However, biological tests are not completely satisfactory, mainly due to the low sensitivity and the absence of specialized variations. In this context LC-MS methods replaced HPLC methods with optical detectors, allowing both effective seafood control and monitoring of phytoplankton in terms of the different groups of marine biotoxins. This chapter describes state-of-the-art LC-MS/MS methods for the detection and quantitation of different classes of phycotoxins in shellfish matrices. These classes include the highly hydrophilic paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins. Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) has been shown to be useful in the separation of PSP toxins and is described in detail within this chapter. Another important class of phycotoxins is diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. This group traditionally comprises okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins (DTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs), and yessotoxins (YTXs). The most recently described shellfish poisoning syndrome, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP) is caused by azaspiracids, which in turn are diarrhetic, but usually are treated separately as AZP. The last group of regulated shellfish toxins is the amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) toxin domoic acid, produced by species of the genus Pseudo-nitzschia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Luckas
- Institute of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Biology & Pharmacy, Friedrich-Schiller University, Dornburger Str. 159, 07743, Jena, Germany,
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39
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O'Driscoll D, Škrabáková Z, James KJ. Confirmation of extensive natural distribution of azaspiracids in the tissue compartments of mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2014; 92:123-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Kilcoyne J, Nulty C, Jauffrais T, McCarron P, Herve F, Foley B, Rise F, Crain S, Wilkins AL, Twiner MJ, Hess P, Miles CO. Isolation, structure elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of azaspiracids from the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:2465-2474. [PMID: 25356854 DOI: 10.1021/np500555k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We identified three new azaspiracids (AZAs) with molecular weights of 715, 815, and 829 (AZA33 (3), AZA34 (4), and AZA35, respectively) in mussels, seawater, and Azadinium spinosum culture. Approximately 700 μg of 3 and 250 μg of 4 were isolated from a bulk culture of A. spinosum, and their structures determined by MS and NMR spectroscopy. These compounds differ significantly at the carboxyl end of the molecule from known AZA analogues and therefore provide valuable information on structure-activity relationships. Initial toxicological assessment was performed using an in vitro model system based on Jurkat T lymphocyte cytotoxicity, and the potencies of 3 and 4 were found to be 0.22- and 5.5-fold that of AZA1 (1), respectively. Thus, major changes in the carboxyl end of 1 resulted in significant changes in toxicity. In mussel extracts, 3 was detected at low levels, whereas 4 and AZA35 were detected only at extremely low levels or not at all. The structures of 3 and 4 are consistent with AZAs being biosynthetically assembled from the amino end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, Ireland
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McCarron P, Giddings SD, Reeves KL, Hess P, Quilliam MA. A mussel (Mytilus edulis) tissue certified reference material for the marine biotoxins azaspiracids. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 407:2985-96. [PMID: 25335820 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8250-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are lipophilic biotoxins produced by marine algae that can contaminate shellfish and cause human illness. The European Union (EU) regulates the level of AZAs in shellfish destined for the commercial market, with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) being used as the official reference method for regulatory analysis. Certified reference materials (CRMs) are essential tools for the development, validation, and quality control of LC-MS methods. This paper describes the work that went into the planning, preparation, characterization, and certification of CRM-AZA-Mus, a tissue matrix CRM, which was prepared as a wet homogenate from mussels (Mytilus edulis) naturally contaminated with AZAs. The homogeneity and stability of CRM-AZA-Mus were evaluated, and the CRM was found to be fit for purpose. Extraction and LC-MS/MS methods were developed to accurately certify the concentrations of AZA1 (1.16 mg/kg), AZA2 (0.27 mg/kg), and AZA3 (0.21 mg/kg) in the CRM. Quantitation methods based on standard addition and matrix-matched calibration were used to compensate for the matrix effects in LC-MS/MS. Other toxins present in this CRM at lower levels were also measured with information values reported for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-2, yessotoxin, and several spirolides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pearse McCarron
- National Research Council of Canada, Measurement Science and Standards, Biotoxin Metrology, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada,
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Triantafyllakis M, Tofi M, Montagnon T, Kouridaki A, Vassilikogiannakis G. Singlet Oxygen-Mediated Synthesis of Bis-spiroketals Found in Azaspiracids. Org Lett 2014; 16:3150-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ol501301w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Myron Triantafyllakis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Vasilika Vouton, 71003 Iraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Maria Tofi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Vasilika Vouton, 71003 Iraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Tamsyn Montagnon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Vasilika Vouton, 71003 Iraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Antonia Kouridaki
- Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Vasilika Vouton, 71003 Iraklion, Crete, Greece
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Kilcoyne J, McCarron P, Twiner MJ, Nulty C, Crain S, Quilliam MA, Rise F, Wilkins AL, Miles CO. Epimers of azaspiracids: Isolation, structural elucidation, relative LC-MS response, and in vitro toxicity of 37-epi-azaspiracid-1. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:587-600. [PMID: 24506502 DOI: 10.1021/tx400434b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) was identified in 1998, the number of AZA analogues has increased to over 30. The development of an LC-MS method using a neutral mobile phase led to the discovery of isomers of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3, present at ~2-16% of the parent analogues in phytoplankton and shellfish samples. Under acidic mobile phase conditions, isomers and their parents are not separated. Stability studies showed that these isomers were spontaneous epimerization products whose formation is accelerated with the application of heat. The AZA1 isomer was isolated from contaminated shellfish and identified as 37-epi-AZA1 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and chemical analyses. Similar analysis indicated that the isomers of AZA2 and AZA3 corresponded to 37-epi-AZA2 and 37-epi-AZA3, respectively. The 37-epimers were found to exist in equilibrium with the parent compounds in solution. 37-epi-AZA1 was quantitated by NMR, and relative molar response studies were performed to determine the potential differences in LC-MS response of AZA1 and 37-epi-AZA1. Toxicological effects were determined using Jurkat T lymphocyte cells as an in vitro cell model. Cytotoxicity experiments employing a metabolically based dye (i.e., MTS) indicated that 37-epi-AZA1 elicited a lethal response that was both concentration- and time-dependent, with EC50 values in the subnanomolar range. On the basis of EC50 comparisons, 37-epi-AZA1 was 5.1-fold more potent than AZA1. This data suggests that the presence of these epimers in seafood products should be considered in the analysis of AZAs for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County, Galway, Ireland
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44
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Ferreiro SF, Vilariño N, Carrera C, Louzao MC, Santamarina G, Cantalapiedra AG, Rodríguez LP, Cifuentes JM, Vieira AC, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. In vivo arrhythmogenicity of the marine biotoxin azaspiracid-2 in rats. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:425-34. [PMID: 23934164 PMCID: PMC3946725 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1115-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine biotoxins produced by the dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum that accumulate in several shellfish species. Azaspiracid poisoning episodes have been described in humans due to ingestion of AZA-contaminated seafood. Therefore, the contents of AZA-1, AZA-2 and AZA-3, the best-known analogs of the group, in shellfish destined to human consumption have been regulated by food safety authorities of many countries to protect human health. In vivo and in vitro toxicological studies have described effects of AZAs at different cellular levels and on several organs, however, AZA target remains unknown. Very recently, AZAs have been demonstrated to block the hERG cardiac potassium channel. In this study, we explored the potential cardiotoxicity of AZA-2 in vivo. The effects of AZA-2 on rat electrocardiogram (ECG) and cardiac biomarkers were evaluated for cardiotoxicity signs besides corroborating the hERG-blocking activity of AZA-2. Our results demonstrated that AZA-2 does not induce QT interval prolongation on rat ECGs in vivo, in spite of being an in vitro blocker of the hERG cardiac potassium channel. However, AZA-2 alters the heart electrical activity causing prolongation of PR intervals and the appearance of arrhythmias. More studies will be needed to clarify the mechanism by which AZA-2 causes these ECG alterations; however, the potential cardiotoxicity of AZAs demonstrated in this in vivo study should be taken into consideration when evaluating the possible threat that these toxins pose to human health, mainly for individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular disease when regulated toxin limits are exceeded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara F. Ferreiro
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - M. Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Germán Santamarina
- Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Antonio G. Cantalapiedra
- Departamento de Ciencias Clínicas Veterinarias, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Laura P. Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - J. Manuel Cifuentes
- Departamento de Anatomía y Producción Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Andrés C. Vieira
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - K. C. Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Michael O. Frederick
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Ciminiello P, Dell'Aversano C, Forino M, Tartaglione L. Marine Toxins in Italy: The More You Look, the More You Find. European J Org Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201300991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Rodríguez LP, Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Dickerson TJ, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. Microsphere-based immunoassay for the detection of azaspiracids. Anal Biochem 2013; 447:58-63. [PMID: 24215909 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2013.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of lipophilic toxins discovered in mussels from Ireland in 1995 following a human poisoning incident. Nowadays the regulatory limit for AZAs in many countries is set at 160 μg of azaspiracid equivalents per kilogram of shellfish meat. In this work a microsphere-based immunoassay has been developed for the detection of AZAs using a Luminex system. This method is based on the competition between AZA-2 immobilized onto the surface of microspheres and free AZAs for the interaction with a monoclonal anti-azaspiracid antibody (mAb 8F4). In this inhibition immunoassay the amount of mAb 8F4 bound to AZA-2 microspheres was quantified using a phycoerythrin-labeled anti-mouse antibody, and the fluorescence was measured with a Luminex analyzer. Simple acetate/methanol or methanol extractions yielded final extracts with no matrix interferences and adequate recovery rates of 86.5 and 75.8%, respectively. In summary, this work presents a sensitive and easily performed screening method capable of detecting AZAs at concentrations below the range of the European regulatory limit using a microsphere/flow cytometry system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura P Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Tobin J Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Worm Institute for Research and Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Department of Chemistry, BioScience Research Collaborative, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Michael O Frederick
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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Jauffrais T, Kilcoyne J, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Miles CO, Hess P. Dissolved azaspiracids are absorbed and metabolized by blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2013; 65:81-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Jauffrais T, Contreras A, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Tillmann U, Hess P. Effect of Azadinium spinosum on the feeding behaviour and azaspiracid accumulation of Mytilus edulis. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2012; 124-125:179-187. [PMID: 22982497 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Azadinium spinosum, a small toxic dinoflagellate, was recently isolated and identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins (AZAs). Previous experiments related to AZA accumulation in blue mussels upon direct feeding with A. spinosum revealed increased mussel mortality and had negative effects on the thickness of the digestive gland tubules. Therefore we conducted follow up experiments in order to study effects of A. spinosum on mussel feeding behaviour. Individual assessment of mussel feeding time activity (FTA), clearance rate (CR), filtration rate (TFR), absorption rate (AR), faeces and pseudofaeces production were carried out on mussel fed either toxic (A. spinosum) or non-toxic (Isochrisis aff. galbana (T-Iso)) diets. Furthermore, AZA accumulation and biotransformation in mussels were followed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A. spinosum had a significant effect on mussel feeding behaviour compared to T-Iso: CR was lower by a factor of 6, FTA by a factor of 5, TFR by a factor of 3 and AR even decreased to negative values for the last day of exposure. Even so, a rapid AZA accumulation was observed during the first hours of the trial; less than 6h of feeding were required to reach AZA concentration in mussel above regulatory level. In consistence with physiological observations, AZA concentration of about 200 μg kg(-1) did not increase further until the end of the study. AZA bioconversion was also found to be a fast process: after 3h of exposure AZA17, -19 and AZA7-10 were already found, with a proportion of AZA17 equal to AZA2. These results show a negative effect of A. spinosum on blue mussel feeding activity and indicate a possible regulation of AZA uptake by decreasing filtration and increasing pseudofaeces production.
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Krock B, Tillmann U, Voß D, Koch BP, Salas R, Witt M, Potvin É, Jeong HJ. New azaspiracids in Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae). Toxicon 2012; 60:830-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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50
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Jauffrais T, Marcaillou C, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Nicolau E, Tillmann U, Hess P. Azaspiracid accumulation, detoxification and biotransformation in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) experimentally fed Azadinium spinosum. Toxicon 2012; 60:582-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.04.351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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