Relationship between drug involvement and purpose in life

Sense of Purpose in Life and Likelihood of Future Illicit Drug Use or Prescription Medication Misuse

OBJECTIVE

In the United States, 28.6 million people used illicit drugs or misused prescription drugs in the last 30 days. Thus, identifying factors linked with lower likelihood of future drug misuse is an important target for research and practice. Sense of purpose in life has been linked with better behavioral and physical health outcomes. Furthermore, a higher sense of purpose may reduce the likelihood of drug misuse because it has been linked with several protective factors including enhanced ability to handle stress, higher pain tolerance, and lower impulsivity. However, the association between sense of purpose and drug misuse has been understudied. Thus, we tested whether people with a higher sense of purpose at baseline had a lower likelihood of future drug misuse 9 to 10 years later.

METHODS

This study included 3535 middle-aged adults from the Midlife in the United States Study who were not misusing drugs at baseline. Using multiple logistic regression models, we assessed whether baseline purpose in life was associated with risk of misusing drugs 9 to 10 years later.

RESULTS

Among respondents not misusing drugs at baseline, people in the highest quartile of purpose (versus lowest quartile) had a substantially lower likelihood of future drug misuse in a model adjusting for demographic variables (odds ratio = 0.50, 95% confidence interval = 0.31-0.83). Associations remained evident after additionally adjusting for psychological distress, baseline health, and health behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

A growing knowledge base suggests that a sense of purpose can be increased. Additional research is needed to evaluate sense of purpose as a novel target in the prevention and reduction of drug misuse.

Sense of Purpose in Life and Cardiovascular Disease: Underlying Mechanisms and Future Directions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we synthesize recent research that has reported associations of a higher sense of purpose in life with reduced risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD), and then explore mechanisms that might underlie these associations.

RECENT FINDINGS

Accumulating observational and experimental evidence suggests that having a higher sense of purpose might influence CVD risk through three pathways: (1) enhancement of other psychological and social resources that buffer against the cardiotoxic effects of overwhelming stress; (2) indirect effects through health behaviors; and (3) direct effects on biological pathways. A sense of purpose in life is emerging as an independent risk factor for incident CVD. A key remaining question is whether purpose causally effects CVD risk; in the "Future Research Directions" section, we focus on work needed to establish causality and provide suggestions for next steps.

Contributions to Psychohistory: XXI. Analysis of Conrad's Lord Jim's Life Meaning

Conrad's fictional character Jim's meaning in life is employed as an illustration of the application of DeVogler-Ebersole and Ebersole's scoring system for depth of meaning in life and their method for categorization of different types of meaning in life. Finally, the following issues are briefly covered: future research, an alternative conceptualization of Jim, and the failure of current measures of meaning in life depth to take into consideration the person's behavior.

Sources of Meaning: An Investigation of Significant Commitments in Life

This study investigates, combining qualitative and quantitative research methods, the sources of meaning in life of young adult patients and nonpatients. In addition to the exploratory concerns, the current investigation tested the following three predictions: (a) Relationships are the most frequent sources of meaning in life; (b) patients are less committed to their personal meanings than nonpatients; and (c) participants’ degrees of meaning in life, as operationalized with their scores on the Life Regard Index (LRI), are related to the degree of their commitment to their personal meanings. Findings from both the phenomenal and statistical analyses strongly support the predictions and generally confirm the clinical relevance of the meaning in life construct. Notably, the interpersonal dimension appears a critically relevant domain in the established differential effects in both nonpatients-patients and females-males comparisons. Implications for clinical practice and suggestions for future research are offered.

Promoting Positive Future Expectations During Adolescence: The Role of Assets

Positive future expectations can facilitate optimal development and contribute to healthier outcomes for youth. Researchers suggest that internal resources and community-level factors may influence adolescent future expectations, yet little is known about the processes through which these benefits are conferred. The present study examined the relationship between contribution to community, neighborhood collective efficacy, purpose, hope and future expectations, and tested a mediation model that linked contribution to community and collective efficacy with future expectations through purpose and hope in a sample of 7th grade youth (N = 196; Mage = 12.39; 60 % female; 40 % African American; 71 % economically disadvantaged). Greater collective efficacy and contribution to community predicted higher levels of hope and purpose. Higher levels of hope and purpose predicted more positive future expectations. Contribution to community and neighborhood collective efficacy indirectly predicted future expectations via hope. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Youth purpose and positive youth development

This chapter reviews research and findings on youth purpose as it relates to positive youth development (PYD) and thriving. The authors note that purpose is defined in multiple ways in the youth development literature, including one-dimensional and multi-dimensional definitions, and those that combine purpose with other constructs, like meaning. Although research on youth purpose and thriving is in its early stages, however, multiple other purpose-like constructs appear in the positive youth development literature, such as life goals, contribution, and sparks, that can tell us about how purpose and PYD may interact. Recent research suggests that purpose aligns with several positive states during adolescence and young adulthood, like life -satisfaction, coping, generosity, optimism, humility, mature identity status, and more global personality integration. Purpose may also be promoted through social support from people in young people's lives who are sensitive and responsive to their interests and concerns.

Purpose in life predicts treatment outcome among adult cocaine abusers in treatment

A sense of purpose in life has been positively associated with mental health and well-being and has been negatively associated with alcohol use in correlational and longitudinal studies but has not been studied as a predictor of cocaine treatment outcome. This study examined pretreatment purpose in life as a predictor of response to a 30-day residential substance use treatment program among 154 participants with cocaine dependence. Purpose in life was unrelated to cocaine or alcohol use during the 6 months pretreatment. After controlling for age, baseline use, and depressive symptoms, purpose in life significantly (p < .01) predicted relapse to any use of cocaine and to alcohol and the number of days cocaine or alcohol was used in the 6 months after treatment. Findings suggest that increasing purpose in life may be an important aspect of treatment among cocaine-dependent patients.

Meaning in life: does it play a role in smoking?

The aim of this study was to investigate whether a relationship exists between a decreased level of meaning in life and smoking. In 2006, 341 Hungarian respondents (48.1% males, 51.9% females) completed a questionnaire that included the Purpose in Life test, a shortened version of the Aspiration Index and the Beck Depression Inventory, as well as questions about sociodemographic characteristics, past year alcohol and illicit drug consumption, and smoking behavior. The mean age of the participants was 33.0 years (SD = 14.6), while the average years of education of the respondents was 14.5 (SD = 2.7). According to the results of the regression analysis, meaning in life proved to be significant in differentiating between nonsmokers and daily smokers. With regard to the nonsmoker vs. occasional smoker and the daily vs. occasional smoker relationship, level of life meaning was not a significant predictor. The gender-meaning in life interaction was insignificant in all three relations. Limitations of this explorative investigation are noted.

Substance use clusters in a college sample: a multitheoretical approach

Substance use factors were examined and cross-validated in a cluster analytic approach in two independent samples of college students: N = 291 and N = 602. Reported frequency, intensity, and amount of substance use were examined for beer, hard liquor, marijuana, amphetamines, barbiturates, psychedelics, cocaine, and heroin. Variables were reduced using Principal Components Analysis (PCA) to form four substance use composites. Composite scores were entered into two different methods of cluster analysis that each identified four distinct clusters of substance use groups. External validity was obtained by showing that these four groups differed on a set of relevant variables. The four groups served as levels of the independent variable, substance use type, in four MANOVAs examining group differences on peer and family influence, psychosocial functioning, habit acquisition, and self-efficacy. Findings indicate that as frequency and intensity of substance use increased, individuals reported more problems in living, although a causal direction cannot be established. The findings are of potential value in early identification, prevention, and education regarding substance use among college populations.

Individual differences in reminiscence among older adults: predictors of frequency and pleasantness ratings of reminiscence activity

Although reminiscence has been recognized as an adaptive coping mechanism and its beneficial value is stressed in later life transitions, few studies have examined the frequency of self-reported reminiscence in relation to the personality traits, psychological well-being, purpose in life, and background characteristics of elderly individuals. Nor has there been any previous attempt to study the independent contributions of these factors as predictors of the frequency of reminiscence activity or the pleasantness ratings of the reminiscence activity. A sample of seventy individuals between the ages of sixty-seven and eighty-two years was selected from community settings, and an equivalent age sample of seventy individuals was selected from nursing home settings. A structured interview procedure and questionnaire assessed the frequency of reminiscence activity and ratings of pleasantness associated with it. The independent contributions of various personality measures, psychological well-being measures, and meaning of life measures as predictors of the frequency and pleasantness of reminiscence activity were analyzed via multiple regression analyses. The results showed that despite wide variability in the use of reminiscence, certain specific factors of personality, psychological well-being, will to meaning, and negative life events are strong predictors of the frequency and pleasantness of reminiscence activity. These results are discussed in terms of mental health implications for the identification of individuals with greatest potential for engaging frequently in reminiscence as a therapeutic tool and finding it a pleasant pursuit.

Effectiveness of the Transcendental Meditation program in preventing and treating substance misuse: a review

This article reviews 24 studies on the benefits of Transcendental Meditation (TM) in treating and preventing misuse of chemical substances. Studies cover noninstitutionalized users, participants in treatment programs, and prisoners with histories of heavy use. All the studies showed positive effects of the TM program. Some of the survey-type studies were unable to exclude the possibility of self-selection or responder biases. However, longitudinal, random-assignment studies with objective measures also showed positive results. Taken together, these and other studies indicate the program simultaneously addresses several factors underlying chemical dependence, providing not only immediate relief from distress but also long-range improvements in well-being, self-esteem, personal empowerment, and other areas of psychophysiological health.

Correlates of Cocaine Use among Adolescents

In 1985, 2,926 seventh, ninth, and eleventh graders from the Ventura County School District were surveyed to determine the extent of their drug use and the psychosocial correlates of such use. The sample was divided into roughly equal numbers of girls and boys. Differential patterns associated with cocaine use were examined separately for each gender by grade grouping for eight domains of variables. These domains were selected on the basis of theory and previous research and include life satisfaction, emotional distress, perceived adult drug use, peer tolerance of drug use, parental approval of drug use, academic orientation, social conformity, and other drug use. In general, cocaine use was significantly correlated with several affective, attitudinal, and behavioral variables. However, only other drug use was significantly and uniquely associated with cocaine use when all the other variables were controlled. Thus, for this group of teenagers, there was no discernable integrated lifestyle specific to cocaine; cocaine use was integrated into a lifestyle of general drug use or poly-drug use.

Depression, self-derogation, substance use, and suicide ideation: lack of purpose in life as a mediational factor

A theoretical model of adolescent behavior is examined separately for males and females (N = 722). The model hypothesizes that depression and self-derogation may lead to a lack of purpose in life, which, in turn, may lead to suicide ideation and substance use. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation procedures were used to examine the model, using Bentler's (1984) EQS computer program, which is available from BMDP. For both the men and women, the model adequately accounted for the data although there were some important differences between the sexes. In response to psychic discomfort (i.e., Depression and Self-derogation), men are more apt to turn to drugs and alcohol, whereas women consider suicide. Conversely, the situation changes in response to feelings of meaninglessness or a lack of purpose in life. Here, the females appear to turn to substance use, whereas the males react with thoughts of suicide.

Personality and non-medical use of drugs

A plethora of studies have indicated marihuana users differ from nonusers on a variety of personality dimensions. The direction of these differences and their interpretation vary from report to report depending on the samples, the measures, and the orientation of both authors and readers. The present study examined the relationships between extent of non-medical use of drugs and Personality Research Form (Jackson, 1974) scores of 24 males. Little evidence was found that would justify the acceptance of either a positive or a negative stereotype of a person who participates in non-medical drug use.

Secondary prevention of drug dependence through the transcendental meditation program in metropolitan Philadelphia

Using mailed questionnaires, the Transcendental Meditation program was investigated as an approach to the secondary prevention of substance dependence. Significant differences were found between a random sample of meditators and matched control subjects in usage levels and percentage of users for almost all legal and illegal drugs. Meditators had used more prescribed psychoactive medications before learning meditation, but usage levels returned to normal soon after starting. Former users of alcohol, cigarettes, or illegal drugs achieved remarkable abstinence records. For most substances the amount of decrease was positively correlated with degree of participation in the program and the length of time meditating.

The Purpose-in-Life test in an inmate population: an empirical investigation

This study examined the relationship of the Purpose-in-Life test to a number of variables in a sample of 48 inmates. The PIL was shown to be a reliable and valid instrument and correlated significantly and positively with measures of the self-concept, self-esteem, internal locus of control, and two EPI scales: Plans and Organizes Things and Carefree. Also found were significant relationships between PIL scores and age, IQ, and family relations. When compared to normal samples, inmates scored significantly lower on meaning and purpose in life. These data support the continued use of the PIL in research and applied settings.

Purpose in life and personal values among adult alcoholics

Ideas of purpose and meaning in life, religious or spiritual values, belief in a Higher Power, and related constructs often play an important role in traditional alcoholism rehabilitation approaches, but very few data are available. Consequently, 49 males and 8 females in a 30-day inpatient treatment program for alcoholics were given the Purpose in Life (PIL) test and Study of Values (SOV) shortly after admission to the hospital and again just before discharge. Results indicated: (1) significant increases in PIL scores; (2) no significant dissimilarities between alcoholics and normals on the SPV; and (3) significant correlations between PIL and the Aesthetic and Religious scales of the SOV on the second administration only. Results were discussed in terms of future directions for research and implications for treatment.

Relationship between sex drive and sexual frustration and purpose in life

Forty-eight college students (18 males, M age = 24.3, 30 females, M age = 23.5) participated in a study that investigated the relationship between one's sense of purpose in life and sexual attitudes and behavior. The test instruments included the Purpose in Life Test (PIL), a Sex Drive and Interest Scale, and a Sexual Frustration and Maladjustment Scale. Correlations were computed between the students' PIL scores and scores on each of the sex scales. The results indicated no relationship between PIL scores and the scores on the sex drive scale, whereas significant negative correlations were found between PIL scores and the sexual frustration scores for males and for the combined group of males and females. The scores on the PIL and the sexual frustration scale were not related to the students' sex. These results support Frankl's theory that sexual frustration may be a manifestation of a more general existential frustration.