The effect of changes in overtime work hours on depressive symptoms among Japanese white-collar workers: A 2-year follow-up study

Unpaid overtime and mental health in the Canadian working population

BACKGROUND

Unpaid overtime-describing a situation where extra hours are worked but not paid for-is a common feature of the labor market that, together with other forms of wage theft, costs workers billions of dollars annually. In this study, we examine the association between unpaid overtime and mental health in the Canadian working population. We also assess the relative strength of that association by comparing it against those of other broadly recognized work stressors.

METHODS

Data were drawn from a survey administered to a heterogeneous sample of workers in Canada (n = 3691). Generalized linear models quantified associations between unpaid overtime, stress, and burnout, distinguishing between moderate (1-5) and excessive (6 or more) hours of unpaid overtime.

RESULTS

Unpaid overtime was associated with higher levels of stress and burnout. Relative to those working no unpaid overtime, men working excessive unpaid overtime were 85% more likely to report stress (prevalence ratios [PR]: 1.85, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.26-2.72) and 84% more likely to report burnout (PR: 1.84, 95% CI: 1.34-2.54), while women working excessive unpaid overtime were 90% more likely to report stress (PR: 1.90, 95% CI: 1.32-2.75) and 52% more likely to report burnout (PR: 1.52; 95% CI: 1.12-2.06). The association of excessive unpaid overtime with mental health was comparable in magnitude to that of shift work and low job control.

CONCLUSIONS

Unpaid overtime may present a significant challenge to the mental health of working people, highlighting the potential role of wage theft as a neglected occupational health hazard.

Characteristics of long working hours and subsequent psychological and physical responses: JNIOSH cohort study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine the prospective association among objectively measured average working hours (AWHs), frequency of long working hours (FLWHs; defined as ≥205 working hours/month (≥45 hours/week)) for 6 months, and workers' self-reported psychological and physical health.

METHODS

The study included 15 143 workers from 5 Japanese companies. We collected monthly attendance records over 6 months before distributing a questionnaire survey on psychological/physical stress responses and work-related demographics. We then evaluated the associations of those attendance records with psychological/physical measures using analysis of covariance adjusted for sex, age, employment, job type, working conditions, work site and experience of emergency state due to COVID-19.

RESULTS

Irritability, anxiety and depression were significantly greater at ≥180 hours (≥45 hours/week), and fatigue and lack of vigour were greater at ≥205 hours than those of the normal working-hour group (140-180 hours/month [35-45 hours/week]). Psychological indices increased significantly with FLWH, with ≥3 times for irritability, depression and fatigue; ≥2 times for lack of vigour; and ≥1 time for anxiety when compared with no long working hours. No significant associations were observed between AWH or FLWH and physical stress responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Longer AWH was associated with higher levels of psychological stress responses. The effects of FLWH in the past 6 months varied among the psychological stress responses and did not occur for physical complaints. Under circumstances requiring long hours, workers' mental health should be protected through minimising the frequency of long work hours.

Usage of the Brief Job Stress Questionnaire: A Systematic Review of a Comprehensive Job Stress Questionnaire in Japan from 2003 to 2021

The Brief Job Stress Questionnaire (BJSQ) is used widely in occupational health studies and practice. Summarizing scientific production based on measurement is crucial. This study aimed to systematically review observational studies that used the BJSQ and the New BJSQ to show their usability. A systematic search was conducted for studies investigating relationships between the BJSQ or the New BJSQ subscales and other validated measurements on 13 September 2021, in various literature databases. The BJSQ subscales, scoring methods, and other validated measurements in the studies were qualitatively summarized. In total, 145 published reports between 2003 and 2021 were included. Among the BJSQ subscales, job stressors (n = 95) such as quantitative job overload (n = 65) and job control (n = 64) were most often used. The subscales were utilized to investigate the relationships with several other measurements. Five reports used subscales from the New BJSQ. In the last two decades, the BJSQ and the New BJSQ help measure psychosocial factors (PF) at work and contribute to the publication of scientific papers in the occupational health field. This study would encourage the utilization of the questionnaires for future research and practice.

Association between Long Working Hours and Psychological Distress: The Effect Modification by Request to Stay Home When Sick in the Workplace during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The effect of workplace infection control measures required by the COVID-19 pandemic on the association between long working hours and psychological distress has not yet been fully revealed. This study investigated the effect of requesting to stay home when sick (RSH) on the association between long working hours and psychological distress. We conducted a cross-sectional survey in December 2020 among participants who had previously registered with a Japanese web survey company. A total of 27,036 workers completed a self-administered questionnaire which assessed usual daily overtime work hours. RSH was assessed using an original single-item scale, while psychological distress was measured with the K6 scale. After the interaction effect of overtime work hours and RSH on psychological distress was tested, we conducted stratified analyses using RSH. The statistical analysis demonstrated a significant interaction effect (p for interaction < 0.001). When we conducted stratified analyses, the odds ratios increased with longer working hours, both with and without RSH groups; however, the risk of long working hours causing psychological distress was greater in the latter group (odds ratio = 1.95 [95% confidence interval: 1.62−2.36] than in the former group (odds ratio = 1.73 [95% confidence interval: 1.55−1.93]). We found that working without RSH could strengthen the association between long working hours and psychological distress. Our findings contribute to preventing the deterioration of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Managers' awareness of mental health measures for their employees in small and medium-sized enterprises in a depopulated mountainous area in Japan: A qualitative study

The local economy is often supported by small and medium-sized enterprises. There is a need to consider effective promotion methods for mental health measures in these enterprises in depopulated mountainous areas. It is important to understand managers' awareness when considering effective mental health measures in these enterprises. The study's aim is to explore managers' awareness of mental health measures for employees in small and medium-sized enterprises in depopulated mountainous areas in Japan.Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with 6 managers in 2019. The primary issues addressed by the interview were regarding the awareness among managers about mental health promotion measures for employees. These are the primary prevention measures. The interview also addressed issues related to the awareness of measures for mental health problems that are fundamental to the secondary and tertiary prevention measures. A qualitative descriptive analysis was conducted.Three categories and 8 subcategories emerged regarding the managers' awareness of mental health promotion measures for employees. The 3 categories were: "Individual support, including their life's aspect, while taking advantage of formal and informal relationships," "The difficulty of drawing out an employees' motivation to work, due to the changes over time in the work size or in their working relationships," and "Creating a comfortable working environment for employees, by complying with the labor standards and adjusting relationships." Regarding managers' awareness of the measures for mental health problems, four categories and 8 subcategories emerged. The 4 categories were: "Prevention and awareness of the incidence of mental health problems," "Individual support based on the enterprise's or employee's characteristics," "A lack of support for the manager to address employees' mental health problems," and "Employees quitting the job, due to the lack of appropriate support."Though managers in depopulated mountainous areas were well aware of the mental health activities offered, the categories showed the need to foster social capital. It also showed the need to collaborate with external support organizations, and the difficulties faced by small and medium-sized enterprises.

Association Between Overtime-Working Environment and Psychological Distress Among Japanese Workers: A Multilevel Analysis

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Objective:

The study aims to examine the association between overtime-working environment (OWE) and individual psychological distress among Japanese workers.

Methods:

Data of 7786 workers from 101 companies in Japan were analyzed. Psychological distress was assessed through a 29-item questionnaire. The OWE was evaluated by calculating the proportion of workers whose monthly overtime was 45 hours or more in a workplace. Multilevel logistic regression was used.

Results:

As 10% increase in the OWE was associated with a 16% higher risk of individual psychological distress after adjustment of individual covariates, including overtime working hours. Cross-level interaction showed that the risk was varied depending on individual overtime working hours.

Conclusions:

OWE was associated with the psychological distress of workers. It is necessary to create a non-OWE at workplaces to prevent psychological distress for workers.

Impact of overtime working and social interaction on the deterioration of mental well-being among full-time workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan: Focusing on social isolation by household composition

OBJECTIVES

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has forced many employees to alter both their work style and lifestyle. This study aimed to examine how the combination of changes in overtime working hours and social interaction affects the full-time employees' mental well-being, focusing on the difference in household composition.

METHODS

In November 2020, we conducted a cross-sectional Internet survey that included 4388 Japanese men and women aged 25-64 years, who continued the same full-time job during the pandemic. We performed a logistic regression analysis using a combination of the changes in overtime working hours and social interaction as an independent variable, and the presence/absence of deterioration of mental well-being as the dependent variable.

RESULTS

Overall, 44% of participants reported the deterioration of mental well-being compared to before the outbreak. The multivariate analysis revealed that the participants coded as "increased overtime/decreased interaction" were significantly associated with the deterioration of mental well-being compared to those with "unchanged overtime/unchanged interaction" (odds ratio [OR] 2.14, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.59-2.89). Moreover, this association was relatively stronger among single-person households (OR 2.66, 95% CI 1.50-4.69).

CONCLUSIONS

The negative combination of increasing overtime working hours and decreasing social interaction may have an impact on the deterioration of mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, and this association was comparably strong among single-person households. In the pandemic, it is necessary to pay close attention to both overtime working hours and the presence of social interaction to address the mental well-being among employees.

Parental psychological distress in the postnatal period in Japan: a population-based analysis of a national cross-sectional survey

Mental health assessments of both members of a couple are important when considering the child-rearing environment. The prevalence and factors associated with both parents' psychological distress have not been fully investigated. A nationally representative sample from the 2016 Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions in Japan was used to examine the prevalence of moderate and severe psychological distress in parents in the first year after childbirth. In total, 3,514 two-parent households raising children under one year old met the study criteria. The Japanese version of Kessler 6 was used to assess moderate and severe psychological distress. The prevalence of either or both parents experiencing psychological distress in the first year after birth were 15.1% and 3.4%, respectively. A multivariate logistic regression analysis showed factors of fathers who worked ≥ 55 h a week, reduced duration of sleep in mothers, age in months of the youngest child, and high household expenditures were significantly associated with both parents simultaneously having moderate or severe psychological distress. This study implied the importance of prevention and early detection of parental psychological distress in both parents. Assessing parents' psychological distress and work-style reform in the childcare period is an urgent issue to improve their mental health conditions.

Examining the Effects of Overtime Work on Subjective Social Status and Social Inclusion in the Chinese Context

Although researchers have argued that long work hours have been shown to threaten individual health, lead to work-family conflict, and reduce job performance, the effect of overtime work on social-related outcomes has received little attention. Based on the framework of relative deprivation, we attempt to address this important issue by exploring whether, why, and when individuals’ overtime work influences their social attitudes. By using the data of 400 Chinese employees from the China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey (CLD), we found that overtime work was associated with a low level of subjective social status and social inclusion. In addition, we found that the time type of overtime work (work overtime on weekdays or on weekends and holidays) has a moderating effect on the relationship between overtime work and social inclusion. That is, employees who work overtime on weekdays are unlikely to have a sense of social inclusion. Furthermore, the negative relationship between overtime work and subjective social status was stronger at a low level of fairness rather than a high level of fairness. In contrast, the negative relationship between overtime work and social inclusion was stronger at a high level of fairness rather than a low level of fairness. These findings highlight the critical role of overtime work in social life and also provide novel insights into social intervention aimed at the happiness and harmony of a society.

The effect of changes in overtime work hours on depressive symptoms among Japanese white-collar workers: A 2-year follow-up study

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of changes in overtime work hours on depressive symptoms among Japanese white-collar workers.

METHODS

Participant data were collected from a company's annual mental health survey in June 2013 and June 2014. The participants comprised 922 workers who responded to the survey in both the years and had records of monthly working hours in the past 2 years. We obtained information on monthly working hours from personnel records from June 2012 to May 2014. Depressive symptoms were measured by the Brief Job Stress Questionnaire. Changes in overtime work hours were measured by creating a five-category variable for each monthly average of overtime work hours in the past year: (a) stable short, (b) decreased, (c) stable medium, (d) increased, and (e) stable long groups. Analysis of covariance was conducted to estimate the degree of depressive symptoms of each group for changes in overtime work hours.

RESULTS

Significant differences among the groups were observed (F = 3.67, P = 0.006). In the Bonferroni multiple comparison test, significantly lower depressive symptoms were observed in the decreased group (point estimate = 9.56) compared to the stable short (10.76), stable medium (10.71), and increased groups (10.99). There was no significant difference between the decreased group and the stable long group (10.98).

CONCLUSIONS

A decrease in overtime work hours may prevent the deterioration of mental health. This knowledge could support the necessity of mental health measures through decreasing overtime work hours proposed by national policy in Japan.