Everyday Life Cognitive Instability Predicts Simple Reaction Time Variability: Analysis of Reaction Time Distributions and Delta Plots

Improving mental arithmetic ability of primary school students with schema teaching method: An experimental study

Skillful utilization of mental arithmetic can significantly improve students' mathematical computation ability. However, it was observed that primary school students often resort to reiterating the process of written arithmetic in their minds during mental arithmetic, which is not conducive to their numerical ability improvement. This paper devises a set of graphic teaching aids for primary school students' mental arithmetic improvement based on mental arithmetic strategies, schema theory, and working memory. To validate the effectiveness of schema teaching in enhancing mental arithmetic ability among primary school students, a controlled experiment was conducted with two groups of third-grade students randomly selected from a primary school in Jingshan City. The results, obtained through descriptive statistical analysis and the multitrait-multimethod approach (MTMM), indicated that the experimental group (n = 52) demonstrated significant improvements in speed, accuracy, and stability in mental addition and subtraction after a 14-day instruction period in schema teaching. This study offers a potent mental arithmetic teaching strategy for elementary mathematics education, which can lead to a comprehensive enhancement of students' mental calculation abilities. It also holds promise for inspiring innovative teaching methodologies in primary and secondary mathematics education in the future.

Structural neural correlates of mental fatigue and reward-induced improvement in performance

Neuroimaging studies investigating the association between mental fatigue (henceforth fatigue) and brain physiology have identified many brain regions that may underly the cognitive changes induced by fatigue. These studies focused on the functional changes and functional connectivity of the brain relating to fatigue. The structural correlates of fatigue, however, have received little attention. To fill this gap, this study explored the associations of fatigue with cortical thickness of frontal and parietal regions. In addition, we aimed to explore the associations between reward-induced improvement in performance and neuroanatomical markers in fatigued individuals. Thirty-nine healthy volunteers performed the psychomotor vigilance task for 15 min (i.e., 3 time-on-task blocks of 5 min) out of scanner; followed by an additional rewarded block of the task lasting 5 min. Baseline high-resolution T1-weigthed MR images were obtained. Reaction time increased with time-on-task but got faster again in the rewarded block. Participants' subjective fatigue increased during task performance. In addition, we found that higher increase in subjective mental fatigue was associated with the cortical thickness of the following areas: bilateral precuneus, right precentral gyrus; right pars triangularis and left superior frontal gyrus. Our results suggest that individual differences in subjective mental fatigue may be explained by differences in the degree of cortical thickness of areas that are associated with motor processes, executive functions, intrinsic alertness and are parts of the default mode network.

A Nomothetic Span Approach to the Construct Validation of Sustained Attention Consistency: Re-Analyzing Two Latent-Variable Studies of Performance Variability and Mind-Wandering Self-Reports

The ability to sustain attention consistency is frequently assessed using either objective behavioral measures, such as reaction time (RT) variability, or subjective self-report measures, such as rates of task-unrelated thought (TUT). The current studies examined whether the individual-difference covariation in these measures provides a more construct valid assessment of attention consistency than does either alone. We argue that performance and self-report measures mutually validate each other; each measurement approach has its own sources of error, so their shared variance should best reflect the attention consistency construct. We reanalyzed two latent-variable studies where RT variability and TUTs were measured in multiple tasks (Kane et al. in J Exp Psychol Gen 145:1017-1048, 2016; Unsworth et al. in J Exp Psychol Gen 150:1303-1331, 2021), along with several nomological network constructs to test the convergent and discriminant validity of a general attention consistency factor. Confirmatory factor analyses assessing bifactor (preregistered) and hierarchical (non-preregistered) models suggested that attention consistency can be modeled as the shared variance among objective and subjective measures. This attention consistency factor was related to working memory capacity, attention (interference) control, processing speed, state motivation and alertness, and self-reported cognitive failures and positive schizotypy. Although bifactor models of general attention consistency provide the most compelling construct validity evidence for a specific ability to sustain attention, multiverse analyses of outlier decisions suggested they are less robust than hierarchical models. The results provide evidence for the general ability to sustain attention consistency and suggestions for improving its measurement.

Effects of goal-setting on sustained attention and attention lapses

In three experiments, we examined the effects of goal-setting on sustained attention and attention lapses. We measured both behavioral task performance and subjective attentional states during a four -choice reaction time task (Experiments 1 and 2 administered online; Experiment 3 conducted in-person). Experiment 1 compared a vague goal versus a specific goal. The specific goal reduced lapses in the form of long response times (RTs) but did not impact task-unrelated thoughts. Experiment 2 expanded on E1 by making the specific goal progressively harder. Behavioral lapses (i.e., long RTs) were reduced in the harder-over-time goal condition compared to the control condition. Additionally, while RTs increased with time-on-task in the control condition, RTs in the harder-over-time goal condition remained stable with time-on-task. Experiment 3 aimed to replicate the results of E2 in-person and adjusted the difficulty of the harder-over-time goals to be slightly harder. The results largely replicated E2. Overall, setting specific and difficult task goals led to a reduction in lapses of attention and increased sustained attention performance.

On doing multi-act arithmetic: A multitrait-multimethod approach of performance dimensions in integrated multitasking

Here we present a systematic plan to the experimental study of test–retest reliability in the multitasking domain, adopting the multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) approach to evaluate the psychometric properties of performance in Düker-type speeded multiple-act mental arithmetic. These form of tasks capacitate the experimental analysis of integrated multi-step processing by combining multiple mental operations in flexible ways in the service of the overarching goal of completing the task. A particular focus was on scoring methodology, particularly measures of response speed variability. To this end, we present data of two experiments with regard to (a) test–retest reliability, (b) between-measures correlational structure, (c) and stability (test–retest practice effects). Finally, we compared participants with high versus low performance variability to assess ability-related differences in measurement precision (typically used as proxy to “simulate” patient populations), which is especially relevant in the applied fields of clinical neuropsychology. The participants performed two classic integrated multi-act arithmetic tasks, combining addition and verification (Exp. 1) and addition and comparison (Exp. 2). The results revealed excellent test–retest reliability for the standard and the variability measures. The analysis of between-measures correlational structure revealed the typical pattern of convergent and discriminant relationships, and also, that absolute response speed variability was highly correlated with average speed (r > 0.85), indicating that these measures mainly deliver redundant information. In contrast, speed-adjusted (relativized) variability revealed discriminant validity being correlated to a much lesser degree with average speed, indicating that this measure delivers additional information not already provided by the speed measure. Furthermore, speed-adjusted variability was virtually unaffected by test–retest practice, which makes this measure interesting in situations with repeated testing.

Temporal clusters of age-related behavioral alterations captured in smartphone touchscreen interactions

Smartphones touchscreen interactions may help resolve if and how real-world behavioral dynamics are shaped by aging. Here, in a sample spanning the adult life span (16 to 86 years, N = 598, accumulating 355 million interactions), we clustered the smartphone interactions according to their next inter-touch interval dynamics. There were age-related behavioral losses at the clusters occupying short intervals (∼100 ms, R² ∼ 0.8) but gains at the long intervals (∼4 s, R² ∼ 0.4). Our approach revealed a sophisticated form of behavioral aging where individuals simultaneously demonstrated accelerated aging in one behavioral cluster versus a deceleration in another. Contrary to the common notion of a simple behavioral decline with age based on conventional cognitive tests, we show that the nature of aging systematically varies according to the underlying dynamics. Of all the imaginable factors determining smartphone interactions, age-sensitive cognitive and behavioral processes may dominatingly shape smartphone dynamics.

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The timing of smartphone touchscreen interactions varies from one person to the next

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A diverse range of interactions was studied by quantifying the next interval dynamics

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The smartphone dynamics reflected the performance in cognitive tests and age

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The way aging shapes behavior may depend on its underlying temporal dynamics

Restoration of Attention by Rest in a Multitasking World: Theory, Methodology, and Empirical Evidence

In this work, we evaluate the status of both theory and empirical evidence in the field of experimental rest-break research based on a framework that combines mental-chronometry and psychometric-measurement theory. To this end, we (1) provide a taxonomy of rest breaks according to which empirical studies can be classified (e.g., by differentiating between long, short, and micro-rest breaks based on context and temporal properties). Then, we (2) evaluate the theorizing in both the basic and applied fields of research and explain how popular concepts (e.g., ego depletion model, opportunity cost theory, attention restoration theory, action readiness, etc.) relate to each other in contemporary theoretical debates. Here, we highlight differences between all these models in the light of two symbolic categories, termed the resource-based and satiation-based model, including aspects related to the dynamics and the control (strategic or non-strategic) mechanisms at work. Based on a critical assessment of existing methodological and theoretical approaches, we finally (3) provide a set of guidelines for both theory building and future empirical approaches to the experimental study of rest breaks. We conclude that a psychometrically advanced and theoretically focused research of rest and recovery has the potential to finally provide a sound scientific basis to eventually mitigate the adverse effects of ever increasing task demands on performance and well-being in a multitasking world at work and leisure.

Visually guided movement with increasing time-on-task: Differential effects on movement preparation and movement execution

Top-down cognitive control seems to be sensitive to the detrimental effects of fatigue induced by time-on-task (ToT). The planning and preparation of the motor responses may be especially vulnerable to ToT. Yet, effects of ToT specific to the different phases of movements have received little attention. Therefore, in three experiments, we assessed the effect of ToT on a mouse-pointing task. In Experiment 1, there were 16 possible target positions with variable movement directions. In Experiment 2, the layout of the targets was simplified. In Experiment 3, using cuing conditions, we examined whether the effects of ToT on movement preparation and execution were caused by an increased orientation deficit or decreased phasic alertness. In each experiment, initiation of movement (preparatory phase) became slower, movement execution became faster and overall response time remained constant with increasing ToT. There was, however, no significant within-person association between the preparatory and execution phases. In Experiments 1 and 2, we found a decreasing movement time/movement error ratio, suggesting a more impulsive execution of the pointing movement. In addition, ToT was also accompanied with imprecise movement execution as indicated by the increased errors, mainly in Experiment 2. The results of Experiment 3 indicated that ToT did not induce orientation and phasic alerting deficits but rather was accompanied by decreased tonic alertness.

Pupillary fluctuation amplitude before target presentation reflects short-term vigilance level in Psychomotor Vigilance Tasks

Our daily activities require vigilance. Therefore, it is useful to externally monitor and predict our vigilance level using a straightforward method. It is known that the vigilance level is linked to pupillary fluctuations via Locus Coeruleus and Norepinephrine (LC-NE) system. However, previous methods of estimating long-term vigilance require monitoring pupillary fluctuations at rest over a long period. We developed a method of predicting the short-term vigilance level by monitoring pupillary fluctuation for a shorter period consisting of several seconds. The LC activity also fluctuates at a timescale of seconds. Therefore, we hypothesized that the short-term vigilance level could be estimated using pupillary fluctuations in a short period and quantified their amplitude as the Micro-Pupillary Unrest Index (M-PUI). We found an intra-individual trial-by-trial positive correlation between Reaction Time (RT) reflecting the short-term vigilance level and M-PUI in the period immediately before the target onset in a Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT). This relationship was most evident when the fluctuation was smoothed by a Hanning window of approximately 50 to 100 ms (including cases of down-sampled data at 100 and 50 Hz), and M-PUI was calculated in the period up to one or two seconds before the target onset. These results suggest that M-PUI can monitor and predict fluctuating levels of vigilance. M-PUI is also useful for examining pupillary fluctuations in a short period for elucidating the psychophysiological mechanisms of short-term vigilance.

The development and validation of a short-duration sustained visual search task for process control environments

This study was designed to validate a short-duration sustained visual search task for the assessment of sustained attention in process control environments. The task consists of 10 short dynamic scenarios, which require participants (N = 121) to monitor simulated operating power transmission interfaces, and identify system faults. A vigilance decrement was demonstrated throughout the sustained visual search task, as evident in increased response latencies and decreased accuracy over time. Further, changes in response latency throughout the sustained visual search task were positively associated with changes in response latency during a 30-min, low signal probability task, a 45-min low signal probability task, and a 45-min high signal probability task. The findings indicate that the sustained visual search task may be a valid alternative to a longer-duration process control task for experimental studies, and is likely to be of value for assessments of the capacity for sustained attention of operators in process control environments.

Effect of shift work on fatigue and sleep in neonatal registrars

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to study fatigue and sleep in registrars working 12-hour rotating shifts in our tertiary neonatal intensive unit.

METHODS AND PARTICIPANTS

This study involved neonatal registrar's working day (08:00-21:00) and night (20:30-08:30) shifts. Participants maintained a sleep diary, answered a self-reported sleepiness questionnaire assessing subjective sleepiness, and performed a 10-minute psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) at the start and end of each shift. Primary outcomes: (1) Fatigue at the (i) "start vs end" of day and night shifts, (ii) end of the "day vs night" shifts, and (iii) end of "first vs last shift" in block of day and night shifts. (2) Duration and quality of sleep before the "day vs night" shifts. Mean reaction time (RTM), relative coefficient of variation (RTCV), and lapses (reaction time > 500ms) were used as measures of fatigue on PVT. Secondary outcome: Subjective sleepiness (self-reported sleepiness questionnaire) at the 'start vs end" of day and night shifts.

RESULTS

Fifteen registrars completed the study. Acuity was comparable for all shifts. (1) Psychomotor responses were impaired at the end vs start of day shifts [RTM (p = 0.014), lapses (p = 0.001)], end vs start of night shifts [RTM (p = 0.007), RTCV (p = 0.003), lapses (p<0.001)] and end of night vs day shifts [RTM (p = 0.007), RTCV (p = 0.046), lapses (p = 0.001)]. Only lapses were significantly increased at the end of the last (p = 0.013) vs first shift (p = 0.009) in a block of day and night shifts. (2) Duration of sleep before the night (p = 0.019) and consecutive night shifts was decreased significantly (p = 0.034). Subjective sleepiness worsened after day (p = 0.014) and night shifts (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Fatigue worsened after the 12-hour day and night shifts with a greater change after night shifts. Lapses increased after block of day and night shifts. Sleep was decreased before night shifts. Our findings need to be confirmed in larger studies.

Dissociable influences of implicit temporal expectation on attentional performance and mind wandering

Mind wandering at critical moments during a cognitive task degrades performance. At other moments, mind wandering could serve to conserve task-relevant resources, allowing a brief mental respite. Recent research has shown that, if target timing is predictable, mind wandering episodes coincide with moments of low target likelihood. Conversely, mind wandering can be avoided at moments when targets are expected. In the current study, we tested whether mind wandering can be guided by implicit temporal expectations when target timing is less predictable. In two experiments (Experiment 1: N = 37, Experiment 2: N = 61), participants performed a sustained attention task in which target events were preceded by a variable pre-target interval (foreperiod). As time passes over the foreperiod duration, implicit target expectation increases, given that it has not yet appeared. In Experiment 1, all foreperiod durations were equally probable (uniform distribution: 2-10 s). This resulted in faster responses when targets were preceded by long compared to short foreperiods (foreperiod-effect). In contrast, mind wandering, assessed by thought probes inserted following short or long foreperiods, did not follow this pattern. In Experiment 2, alterations in the foreperiod distribution (left or right-skewed) resulted in changes in the behavioral foreperiod-effect, but mind wandering was unaffected. Our findings indicate that implicit timing strongly affects behavioral response to target events, but has no bearing on the mind wandering. Contrastingly, mind wandering did correlate with performance deterioration due to fatigue (time-on-task), suggesting that the thought probe method was sufficiently sensitive to behaviorally relevant changes in mental state.

Neuroticism as mental noise: Evidence from a continuous tracking task

OBJECTIVE

Prominent theories of Neuroticism emphasize its potential link to threat- or punishment-sensitivity processes. Even in the absence of external threats, though, Neuroticism may predispose people to a sort of "mental noise," or cognitive instability, that creates problems for ongoing efforts after control. If this is the case, cognitive views of Neuroticism might be needed to complement the primarily emotion-related views that currently exist.

METHOD

In a four study program of research (total N = 541), momentary forms of monitoring and control were assessed using variants of a continuous tracking task.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, the dimension of Neuroticism was consistently linked to performance deficits, regardless of whether aversive sounds were present or not (Studies 1-3), and the relevant deficits also predicted daily levels of negative affect (Study 4).

CONCLUSIONS

The results support the idea that momentary self-regulation is noisier in the context of higher levels of Neuroticism.

Socially alerted cognition evoked by a confederate's mere presence: analysis of reaction-time distributions and delta plots

We examined aspects of social alerting as induced through the presence of an attentive but non-evaluative confederate on mental efficiency. To this end, individuals were administered with a chained mental-arithmetic task (levels: low vs. high demand) in two contextual conditions (levels: alone vs. presence). In addition, we examined self-report measures of subjective state for purposes of control. As a result, the presence (vs. alone) condition improved (not hampered) processing speed (while error rate remained low overall), and this effect was differentially more pronounced for high (vs. low) demand. Reaction-time distributional analyses revealed that improvements in average performance actually originated from a selective speeding-up in the slower percentiles, indicating that social alerting promotes stability of information-processing throughput. These results challenge prevalent theoretical notions of mere-presence effects as individuals became consistently faster and less vulnerable to commit attention failure. Our findings indicate that social presence promotes not only processing speed but volitional steadiness.

Stimulus, response and feedback processing in burnout - An EEG study

Professional burnout is a syndrome that is characterized by psychophysical or emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and diminished professional efficacy. Research on burnout often indicates deficits in cognitive functioning, such as memory problems or impaired voluntary control over attention. Many studies focus on behavioral and self-reported measures of burnout consequences; however, a limited number have focused on its consequences on a neural level. In our EEG study (N = 88; 42 with burnout), we analyzed the event-related potentials (ERP) associated with stimulus, response and feedback processing using two experimental procedures - the Go/NoGo Task and the Doors Task. Our results show that while there is no difference in performance between burnout and control group, on the neural level there are significant differences in all analyzed aspects of information processing: stimulus, response and feedback processing, indicated by the N200 and P300, Pe, and P200 event-related potentials, respectively.

Phone Conversation while Processing Information: Chronometric Analysis of Load Effects in Everyday-media Multitasking

This is a pilot study that examined the effect of cell-phone conversation on cognition using a continuous multitasking paradigm. Current theorizing argues that phone conversation affects behavior (e.g., driving) by interfering at a level of cognitive processes (not peripheral activity) and by implying an attentional-failure account. Within the framework of an intermittent spare–utilized capacity threading model, we examined the effect of aspects of (secondary-task) phone conversation on (primary-task) continuous arithmetic performance, asking whether phone use makes components of automatic and controlled information-processing (i.e., easy vs. hard mental arithmetic) run more slowly, or alternatively, makes processing run less reliably albeit with the same processing speed. The results can be summarized as follows: While neither expecting a text message nor expecting an impending phone call had any detrimental effects on performance, active phone conversation was clearly detrimental to primary-task performance. Crucially, the decrement imposed by secondary-task (conversation) was not due to a constant slowdown but is better be characterized by an occasional breakdown of information processing, which differentially affected automatic and controlled components of primary-task processing. In conclusion, these findings support the notion that phone conversation makes individuals not constantly slower but more vulnerable to commit attention failure, and in this way, hampers stability of (primary-task) information processing.

Mobilizing cognition for speeded action: try-harder instructions promote motivated readiness in the constant-foreperiod paradigm

We examined the effect of motivational readiness on cognitive performance. An important but still not sufficiently elaborated question is whether individuals can voluntarily increase cognitive efficiency for an impending target event, given sufficient preparation time. Within the framework of the constant-foreperiod design (comparing reaction time performance in blocks of short and long foreperiod intervals, FPs), we examined the effect of an instruction to try harder (instructional cue: standard vs. effort) in a choice-reaction task on performance speed and variability. Proceeding from previous theoretical considerations, we expected the instruction to speed-up processing irrespective of FP length, while error rate should be increased in the short-FP but decreased in the long-FP condition. Overall, the results confirmed this prediction. Importantly, the distributional (ex-Gaussian and delta plot) analysis revealed that the instruction to try harder decreased distributional skewness (i.e., longer percentiles were more affected), indicating that mobilization ensured temporal performance stability (persistence).

Computer-based tools for assessing micro-longitudinal patterns of cognitive function in older adults

Patterns of cognitive change over micro-longitudinal timescales (i.e., ranging from hours to days) are associated with a wide range of age-related health and functional outcomes. However, practical issues of conducting high-frequency assessments make investigations of micro-longitudinal cognition costly and burdensome to run. One way of addressing this is to develop cognitive assessments that can be performed by older adults, in their own homes, without a researcher being present. Here, we address the question of whether reliable and valid cognitive data can be collected over micro-longitudinal timescales using unsupervised cognitive tests.In study 1, 48 older adults completed two touchscreen cognitive tests, on three occasions, in controlled conditions, alongside a battery of standard tests of cognitive functions. In study 2, 40 older adults completed the same two computerized tasks on multiple occasions, over three separate week-long periods, in their own homes, without a researcher present. Here, the tasks were incorporated into a wider touchscreen system (Novel Assessment of Nutrition and Ageing (NANA)) developed to assess multiple domains of health and behavior. Standard tests of cognitive function were also administered prior to participants using the NANA system.Performance on the two "NANA" cognitive tasks showed convergent validity with, and similar levels of reliability to, the standard cognitive battery in both studies. Completion and accuracy rates were also very high. These results show that reliable and valid cognitive data can be collected from older adults using unsupervised computerized tests, thus affording new opportunities for the investigation of cognitive.