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Putra NE, Leeflang MA, Klimopoulou M, Dong J, Taheri P, Huan Z, Fratila-Apachitei LE, Mol JMC, Chang J, Zhou J, Zadpoor AA. Extrusion-based 3D printing of biodegradable, osteogenic, paramagnetic, and porous FeMn-akermanite bone substitutes. Acta Biomater 2023; 162:182-198. [PMID: 36972809 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2023.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
The development of biodegradable Fe-based bone implants has rapidly progressed in recent years. Most of the challenges encountered in developing such implants have been tackled individually or in combination using additive manufacturing technologies. Yet not all the challenges have been overcome. Herein, we present porous FeMn-akermanite composite scaffolds fabricated by extrusion-based 3D printing to address the unmet clinical needs associated with Fe-based biomaterials for bone regeneration, including low biodegradation rate, MRI-incompatibility, mechanical properties, and limited bioactivity. In this research, we developed inks containing Fe, 35 wt% Mn, and 20 or 30 vol% akermanite powder mixtures. 3D printing was optimized together with the debinding and sintering steps to obtain scaffolds with interconnected porosity of 69%. The Fe-matrix in the composites contained the γ-FeMn phase as well as nesosilicate phases. The former made the composites paramagnetic and, thus, MRI-friendly. The in vitro biodegradation rates of the composites with 20 and 30 vol% akermanite were respectively 0.24 and 0.27 mm/y, falling within the ideal range of biodegradation rates for bone substitution. The yield strengths of the porous composites stayed within the range of the values of the trabecular bone, despite in vitro biodegradation for 28 d. All the composite scaffolds favored the adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of preosteoblasts, as revealed by Runx2 assay. Moreover, osteopontin was detected in the extracellular matrix of cells on the scaffolds. Altogether, these results demonstrate the remarkable potential of these composites in fulfilling the requirements of porous biodegradable bone substitutes, motivating future in vivo research. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: We developed FeMn-akermanite composite scaffolds by taking advantage of the multi-material capacity of extrusion-based 3D printing. Our results demonstrated that the FeMn-akermanite scaffolds showed an exceptional performance in fulfilling all the requirements for bone substitution in vitro, i.e., a sufficient biodegradation rate, having mechanical properties in the range of trabecular bone even after 4 weeks biodegradation, paramagnetic, cytocompatible and most importantly osteogenic. Our results encourage further research on Fe-based bone implants in in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- N E Putra
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - M A Leeflang
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - M Klimopoulou
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - J Dong
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - P Taheri
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Z Huan
- Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Dingxi Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - L E Fratila-Apachitei
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - J M C Mol
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - J Chang
- Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1295 Dingxi Road, Shanghai 200050, China.
| | - J Zhou
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - A A Zadpoor
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.
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Zhang M, Yang N, Dehghan-Manshadi A, Venezuela J, Bermingham MJ, Dargusch MS. Fabrication and Properties of Biodegradable Akermanite-Reinforced Fe35Mn Alloys for Temporary Orthopedic Implant Applications. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:1261-1273. [PMID: 36808972 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c01228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
As a representative of the biodegradable iron (Fe)-manganese (Mn) alloys, Fe35Mn has been investigated as a promising biodegradable metal biomaterial for orthopedic applications. However, its slow degradation rate, though better than pure Fe, and poor bioactivity are concerns that retard its clinical applications. Akermanite (Ca2MgSi2O7, Ake) is a silicate-based bioceramic, showing desirable degradability and bioactivity for bone repair. In the present work, Fe35Mn/Ake composites were prepared via a powder metallurgy route. The effect of different contents of Ake (0, 10, 30, 50 vol %) on the microstructure, mechanical properties, degradation, and biocompatibility of the composites was investigated. The ceramic phases were found to be evenly distributed in the metal matrix. The Ake reacted with Fe35Mn and generated CaFeSiO4 during sintering. The addition of Ake increased the relative density of pure Fe35Mn from ∼90 to ∼94-97%. The compressive yield strength (CYS) and elastic modulus (Ec) increased with increasing Ake, with Fe35Mn/50Ake exhibiting the highest CYS of ∼403 MPa and Ec of ∼18 GPa. However, the ductility decreased at higher Ake concentrations (30 and 50%). Microhardness also showed an increasing trend with the addition of Ake. Electrochemical measurements indicated that higher concentrations of Ake (30 and 50%) could potentially increase the corrosion rate of Fe35Mn from ∼0.25 to ∼0.39 mm/year. However, all of the compositions tested did not show measurable weight loss after immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 4 weeks, attributed to the use of prealloyed raw material, high sintered density of the fabricated composites, and the formation of a dense Ca-, P-, and O-rich layer on the surface. Human osteoblasts on Fe35Mn/Ake composites showed increasing viability with increasing Ake content, indicating improved in vitro biocompatibility. These preliminary results suggest that Fe35Mn/Ake can be a potential material for biodegradable bone implant applications, particularly Fe35Mn/30Ake, if the slow corrosion of the composite can be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meili Zhang
- School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Nan Yang
- School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Ali Dehghan-Manshadi
- School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Venezuela
- School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Michael J Bermingham
- School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Matthew S Dargusch
- School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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Rabeeh VPM, Hanas T. Progress in manufacturing and processing of degradable Fe-based implants: a review. Prog Biomater 2022; 11:163-191. [PMID: 35583848 PMCID: PMC9156655 DOI: 10.1007/s40204-022-00189-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Biodegradable metals have gained vast attention as befitting candidates for developing degradable metallic implants. Such implants are primarily employed for temporary applications and are expected to degrade or resorbed after the tissue is healed. Fe-based materials have generated considerable interest as one of the possible biodegradable metals. Like other biometals such as Mg and Zn, Fe exhibits good biocompatibility and biodegradability. The versatility in the mechanical behaviour of Fe-based materials makes them a better choice for load-bearing applications. However, the very low degradation rate of Fe in the physiological environment needs to be improved to make it compatible with tissue growth. Several studies on tailoring the degradation behaviour of Fe in the human body are already reported. Majority of these works include studies on the effect of manufacturing and processing techniques on biocompatibility and biodegradability. This article focuses on a comprehensive review and analysis of the various manufacturing and processing techniques so far reported for developing biodegradable iron-based orthopaedic implants. The current status of research in the field is neatly presented, and a summary of the works is included in the article for the benefit of researchers in the field to contextualise their research and effectively find the lacunae in the existing scholarship.
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Affiliation(s)
- V P Muhammad Rabeeh
- Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, School of Materials Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, 673601, India
| | - T Hanas
- Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, School of Materials Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, 673601, India.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, 673601, India.
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Wang C, Tonna C, Mei D, Buhagiar J, Zheludkevich ML, Lamaka SV. Biodegradation behaviour of Fe-based alloys in Hanks' Balanced Salt Solutions: Part II. The evolution of local pH and dissolved oxygen concentration at metal interface. Bioact Mater 2022; 7:412-425. [PMID: 34466742 PMCID: PMC8379426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Commercially pure Fe, Fe35Mn, and (Fe35Mn)5Ag alloys were prepared by uniaxial pressing of the mixture of individual powders, followed by sintering. The influence of the alloying elements Mn and Ag on the corrosion behaviour of these Fe-based alloys was investigated in Hanks' Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS). Furthermore, the role of the components in HBSS, particularly Ca2+ ions during alloys degradation was studied. Distribution of local pH and dissolved oxygen concentration was measured 50 μm above the interface of the degrading alloys. The results revealed that 5 wt% Ag addition to Fe35Mn alloy triggered micro-galvanic corrosion, while uniform corrosion dominated in pure Fe and Fe35Mn. Fast precipitation of Ca-P-containing products on the surface of these Fe-based alloys buffered local pH at the metal interface, and blocked oxygen diffusion at the initial stages of immersion. In the (Fe35Mn)5Ag, the detachment or structural changes of Ca-P-containing products gradually diminished their barrier property. These findings provided valuable insights into the degradation mechanism of promising biodegradable Fe-based alloys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Wang
- Institute of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht, 21502, Germany
| | - Christabelle Tonna
- Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Di Mei
- Institute of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht, 21502, Germany
- School of Materials Science and Engineering & Henan Key Laboratory of Advanced Magnesium Alloy, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, PR China
| | - Joseph Buhagiar
- Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Mikhail L. Zheludkevich
- Institute of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht, 21502, Germany
- Institute for Materials Science, Faculty of Engineering, Kiel University, Kiel, 24103, Germany
| | - Sviatlana V. Lamaka
- Institute of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht, 21502, Germany
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Wang Y, Venezuela J, Dargusch M. Biodegradable shape memory alloys: Progress and prospects. Biomaterials 2021; 279:121215. [PMID: 34736144 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) have a wide range of potential novel medical applications due to their superelastic properties and ability to restore and retain a 'memorised' shape. However, most SMAs are permanent and do not degrade in the body when used in implantable devices. The use of non-degrading metals may lead to the requirement for secondary removal surgery and this in turn may introduce both short and long-term health risks, or additional waste disposal requirements. Biodegradable SMAs can effectively eliminate these issues by gradually degrading inside the human body while providing the necessary support for healing purposes, therefore significantly alleviating patient discomfort and improving healing efficiency. This paper reviews the current progress in biodegradable SMAs from the perspective of biodegradability, mechanical properties, and biocompatibility. By providing insights into the status of SMAs and biodegradation mechanisms, the prospects for Mg- and Fe-based biodegradable SMAs to advance biodegradable SMA-based medical devices are explored. Finally, the remaining challenges and potential solutions in the biodegradable SMAs area are discussed, providing suggestions and research frameworks for future studies on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Wang
- Centre for Advanced Materials Processing and Manufacturing (AMPAM), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Venezuela
- Centre for Advanced Materials Processing and Manufacturing (AMPAM), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Matthew Dargusch
- Centre for Advanced Materials Processing and Manufacturing (AMPAM), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia.
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Extrusion-based 3D printing of ex situ-alloyed highly biodegradable MRI-friendly porous iron-manganese scaffolds. Acta Biomater 2021; 134:774-790. [PMID: 34311105 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Additively manufactured biodegradable porous iron has been only very recently demonstrated. Two major limitations of such a biomaterial are very low biodegradability and incompatibility with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Here, we present a novel biomaterial that resolves both of those limitations. We used extrusion-based 3D printing to fabricate ex situ-alloyed biodegradable iron-manganese scaffolds that are non-ferromagnetic and exhibit enhanced rates of biodegradation. We developed ink formulations containing iron and 25, 30, or 35 wt% manganese powders, and debinding and sintering process to achieve Fe-Mn scaffolds with 69% porosity. The Fe25Mn scaffolds had the ε-martensite and γ-austenite phases, while the Fe30Mn and Fe35Mn scaffolds had only the γ-austenite phase. All iron-manganese alloys exhibited weakly paramagnetic behavior, confirming their potential to be used as MRI-friendly bone substitutes. The in vitro biodegradation rates of the scaffolds were very much enhanced (i.e., 4.0 to 4.6 times higher than that of porous iron), with the Fe35Mn alloy exhibiting the highest rate of biodegradation (i.e., 0.23 mm/y). While the elastic moduli and yield strengths of the scaffolds decreased over 28 days of in vitro biodegradation, those values remained in the range of cancellous bone. The culture of preosteoblasts on the porous iron-manganese scaffolds revealed that cells could develop filopodia on the scaffolds, but their viability was reduced by the effect of biodegradation. Altogether, this research marks a major breakthrough and demonstrates the great prospects of multi-material extrusion-based 3D printing to further address the remaining issues of porous iron-based materials and, eventually, develop ideal bone substitutes. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: 3D printed porous iron biomaterials for bone substitution still encounter limitations, such as the slow biodegradation and magnetic resonance imaging incompatibility. Aiming to solve the two fundamental issues of iron, we present ex-situ alloyed porous iron-manganese scaffolds fabricated by means of multi-material extrusion-based 3D printing. Our porous iron-manganese possessed enhanced biodegradability, non-ferromagnetic property, and bone-mimicking mechanical property throughout the in vitro biodegradation period. The results demonstrated a great prospect of multi-material extrusion-based 3D printing to further address the remaining challenges of porous iron-based biomaterials to be an ideal biodegradable bone substitutes.
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Biodegradable Iron-Based Materials-What Was Done and What More Can Be Done? MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14123381. [PMID: 34207249 PMCID: PMC8233976 DOI: 10.3390/ma14123381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Iron, while attracting less attention than magnesium and zinc, is still one of the best candidates for biodegradable metal stents thanks its biocompatibility, great elastic moduli and high strength. Due to the low corrosion rate, and thus slow biodegradation, iron stents have still not been put into use. While these problems have still not been fully resolved, many studies have been published that propose different approaches to the issues. This brief overview report summarises the latest developments in the field of biodegradable iron-based stents and presents some techniques that can accelerate their biocorrosion rate. Basic data related to iron metabolism and its biocompatibility, the mechanism of the corrosion process, as well as a critical look at the rate of degradation of iron-based systems obtained by several different methods are included. All this illustrates as the title says, what was done within the topic of biodegradable iron-based materials and what more can be done.
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Putra N, Leeflang M, Minneboo M, Taheri P, Fratila-Apachitei L, Mol J, Zhou J, Zadpoor A. Extrusion-based 3D printed biodegradable porous iron. Acta Biomater 2021; 121:741-756. [PMID: 33221501 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Extrusion-based 3D printing followed by debinding and sintering is a powerful approach that allows for the fabrication of porous scaffolds from materials (or material combinations) that are otherwise very challenging to process using other additive manufacturing techniques. Iron is one of the materials that have been recently shown to be amenable to processing using this approach. Indeed, a fully interconnected porous design has the potential of resolving the fundamental issue regarding bulk iron, namely a very low rate of biodegradation. However, no extensive evaluation of the biodegradation behavior and properties of porous iron scaffolds made by extrusion-based 3D printing has been reported. Therefore, the in vitro biodegradation behavior, electrochemical response, evolution of mechanical properties along with biodegradation, and responses of an osteoblastic cell line to the 3D printed iron scaffolds were studied. An ink formulation, as well as matching 3D printing, debinding and sintering conditions, was developed to create iron scaffolds with a porosity of 67%, a pore interconnectivity of 96%, and a strut density of 89% after sintering. X-ray diffracometry confirmed the presence of the α-iron phase in the scaffolds without any residuals from the rest of the ink. Owing to the presence of geometrically designed macropores and random micropores in the struts, the in vitro corrosion rate of the scaffolds was much improved as compared to the bulk counterpart, with 7% mass loss after 28 days. The mechanical properties of the scaffolds remained in the range of those of trabecular bone despite 28 days of in vitro biodegradation. The direct culture of MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts on the scaffolds led to a substantial reduction in living cell count, caused by a high concentration of iron ions, as revealed by the indirect assays. On the other hand, the ability of the cells to spread and form filopodia indicated the cytocompatibility of the corrosion products. Taken together, this study shows the great potential of extrusion-based 3D printed porous iron to be further developed as a biodegradable bone substituting biomaterial.
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Mandal S, Viraj, Nandi SK, Roy M. Effects of multiscale porosity and pore interconnectivity on in vitro and in vivo degradation and biocompatibility of Fe-Mn-Cu scaffolds. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:4340-4354. [PMID: 34018536 DOI: 10.1039/d1tb00641j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Iron (Fe) based scaffolds are promising candidates as degradable metallic scaffolds. High strength and ability to control the degradation with tailormade composition and porosity are specific advantages of these scaffolds. In this research work, iron-manganese-copper (Fe-Mn-Cu) based scaffolds, with multiscale porosity, are developed through a powder metallurgy route using naphthalene as a spacer material. The porosity in the scaffolds ranged from 42-76%, where the majority of the macro-pores (≥20 μm) form an interconnected channel network. XRD analysis confirms the presence of MRI compatible and antiferromagnetic austenite as a major phase in all the scaffolds. The developed scaffolds in this study have a minimum ultimate compressive strength of 7.21 MPa (for 30Naph), which lies within the range of the human cancellous bone UCS (2-12 MPa). The degradation rates of the scaffolds are determined from static immersion tests, where the scaffold with the highest porosity (76%) shows a highest degradation rate of 2.71 mmpy when immersed in Hank's balanced salt solution (HBSS) at 37 °C for 30 days. The increased degradation rate of the scaffolds has no cytotoxic effects on MG63 cells as studied by alamar blue assay and live/dead imaging. When implanted in a rabbit femur, the scaffold with higher porosity showed enhanced osteogenesis, as evident through micro-CT and histological analysis. It is hypothesized that the presence of multiscale porosity with a high degree of interconnectivity facilitated better bone regeneration within and around the Fe-Mn-Cu scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Mandal
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur, Kharagpur-721302, India.
| | - Viraj
- Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology, West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences, Kolkata 700037, India.
| | - Samit Kumar Nandi
- Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology, West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences, Kolkata 700037, India.
| | - Mangal Roy
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur, Kharagpur-721302, India.
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Li Y, Jahr H, Zhou J, Zadpoor AA. Additively manufactured biodegradable porous metals. Acta Biomater 2020; 115:29-50. [PMID: 32853809 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Partially due to the unavailability of ideal bone substitutes, the treatment of large bony defects remains one of the most important challenges of orthopedic surgery. Additively manufactured (AM) biodegradable porous metals that have emerged since 2018 provide unprecedented opportunities for fulfilling the requirements of an ideal bone implant. First, the multi-scale geometry of these implants can be customized to mimic the human bone in terms of both micro-architecture and mechanical properties. Second, a porous structure with interconnected pores possesses a large surface area, which is favorable for the adhesion and proliferation of cells and, thus, bony ingrowth. Finally, the freeform geometrical design of such biomaterials could be exploited to adjust their biodegradation behavior so as to maintain the structural integrity of the implant during the healing process while ensuring that the implant disappears afterwards, paving the way for full bone regeneration. While the AM biodegradable porous metals that have been studied so far have shown many unique properties as compared to their solid counterparts, the unprecedented degree of flexibility in their geometrical design has not yet been fully exploited to optimize their properties and performance. In order to develop the ideal bone implants, it is important to take advantage of the full potential of AM biodegradable porous metals through detailed and systematic study on their biodegradation behavior, mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and bone regeneration performance. This review paper presents the state of the art in AM biodegradable porous metals and is focused on the effects of material type, processing, geometrical design, and post-AM treatments on the mechanical properties, biodegradation behavior, in vitro biocompatibility, and in vivo bone regeneration performance of AM porous Mg, Fe, and Zn as well as their alloys. We also identify a number of knowledge gaps and the challenges encountered in adopting AM biodegradable porous metals for orthopedic applications and suggest some promising areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yageng Li
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, Netherlands.
| | - Holger Jahr
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen 52074, Germany; Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Maastricht UMC+, Maastricht 6202 AZ, Netherlands
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, Netherlands
| | - Amir Abbas Zadpoor
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, Netherlands
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Liu P, Zhang D, Dai Y, Lin J, Li Y, Wen C. Microstructure, mechanical properties, degradation behavior, and biocompatibility of porous Fe-Mn alloys fabricated by sponge impregnation and sintering techniques. Acta Biomater 2020; 114:485-496. [PMID: 32738505 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In this study, porous iron (Fe)-manganese (Mn) alloys with high porosity were successfully prepared by sponge impregnation and sintering (SIS). The compositions of the porous Fe-Mn alloys were strongly dependent on the sintering temperature, and the Mn content was ~44, 30, and 12 wt.% for alloys sintered at 1100, 1150, and 1200 °C, respectively. The porous Fe-Mn alloys exhibited a well-interconnected porous structure with ~85% porosity and average pore size ranging from 375 to 500 um. The porous Fe-44Mn and Fe-30Mn alloys were mainly composed of a γ-austenite phase, while the porous Fe-12Mn was composed of an α-ferrite phase. The yield strength and elastic modulus of the porous Fe-Mn alloys ranged from 6 to 10 MPa and from 0.12 to 0.37 GPa, respectively, similar to those of cancellous bone. The degradation rate of the porous Fe-Mn alloys decreased over time during immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF), and was 1.0 mm/year for Fe-44Mn, 0.81 mm/year for Fe-30Mn, 0.41 mm/year for Fe-12Mn, and 0.33 mm/year for pure Fe after 14 d SBF immersion. Moreover, the porous Fe-Mn alloys exhibited good biocompatibility with clearly enhanced cell proliferation after direct culturing of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells for 7 d. Thus, these porous Fe-Mn alloys can be anticipated to be promising biodegradable implant materials. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work reports on porous Fe-Mn alloys with high porosity, suitable mechanical properties and degradation rate, and good biocompatibility. The porous alloys prepared by sponge impregnation and sintering exhibited a well-interconnected porous structure with ~85% porosity and average pore size ranging from 375 to 500 um. The yield strength and elastic modulus of the porous alloys ranged from 6 to 10 MPa and from 0.12 to 0.37 GPa, respectively, similar to those of cancellous bone. The degradation rates in simulated body fluid (SBF) were ~1.0 mm/year for Fe-44Mn, 0.81 mm/year for Fe-30Mn, and 0.41 mm/year for Fe-12Mn, respectively. Moreover, the porous Fe-Mn alloys exhibited good biocompatibility with enhanced cell proliferation after direct culturing of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peifeng Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan, China
| | - Dechuang Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan, China.
| | - Yilong Dai
- Key Laboratory of Materials Design and Preparation Technology of Hunan Province, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan, China
| | - Jianguo Lin
- Key Laboratory of Materials Design and Preparation Technology of Hunan Province, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan, China.
| | - Yuncang Li
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia
| | - Cuie Wen
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia.
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Paim TC, Wermuth DP, Bertaco I, Zanatelli C, Naasani LIS, Slaviero M, Driemeier D, Schaeffer L, Wink MR. Evaluation of in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility of iron produced by powder metallurgy. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2020; 115:111129. [PMID: 32600726 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.111129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Biodegradable metallic materials (BMMs) are expected to corrode gradually in vivo after providing the structural support to the tissue during its regeneration and healing processes. These characteristics make them promising candidates for use in stents. These endoprostheses are produced from metal alloys by casting and thermomechanical treatment. Since porous alloys and metals have less corrosion resistance than dense ones, the use of powder metallurgy becomes an option to produce them. Among the metals, iron has been proposed as a material in the manufacturing of stents because of its mechanical properties. However, even then it is unclear what toxicity threshold is safe to the body. Thus, the objective of this research was to verify the biocompatibility of sintered 99.95% and 99.5% pure iron by powder metallurgy in vitro with Adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ADSCs) and in vivo with a Wistar rat model. Herein, characterizations of iron powder samples produced by the powder metallurgy and the process parameters as compression pressure, atmosphere, sintering time and temperature were determined to evaluate the potential of production of biodegradable implants. The samples obtained from pure iron were submitted to tests of green and sintered density, porosity, microhardness, hardness and metallography. The biocompatibility study was performed by indirect and direct cell culture with iron. The effects of corrosion products of iron on morphology, viability, and proliferation of ADSCs were evaluated in vitro. Hemolysis assay was performed to verify the hemocompatibility of the samples. In vivo biocompatibility was evaluated after pure iron discs were implanted subcutaneously into the dorsal area of Wistar rats that were followed up to 6 months. The results presented in this paper validated the potential to produce biodegradable medical implants by powder metallurgy. Both iron samples were hemocompatible and biocompatible in vitro and in vivo, although the 99.95% iron had better performance in vitro than 99.5%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaís Casagrande Paim
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite 245, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Diego Pacheco Wermuth
- Laboratório de Transformação Mecânica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Isadora Bertaco
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite 245, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Carla Zanatelli
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite 245, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Liliana Ivet Sous Naasani
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite 245, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Mônica Slaviero
- Setor de Patologia Veterinária, Faculdade de Veterinária (FAVET), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9090, 91540-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - David Driemeier
- Setor de Patologia Veterinária, Faculdade de Veterinária (FAVET), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9090, 91540-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Lirio Schaeffer
- Laboratório de Transformação Mecânica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Márcia Rosângela Wink
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Departamento de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite 245, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Huang S, Ulloa A, Nauman E, Stanciu L. Collagen Coating Effects on Fe-Mn Bioresorbable Alloys. J Orthop Res 2020; 38:523-535. [PMID: 31608487 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Bioresorbable iron-manganese alloys (Fe-30%Mn) are considered as one of the next-generation resorbable materials for orthopedic applications. Previous in vitro study showed that Fe30Mn scaffolds with 10% porosity displayed strong mechanical properties and adequate degradation rate without severe cytotoxicity effect. However, the cellular compatibility of these alloys in terms of cell-to-cell and alloy-to-cell interactions is not ideal. Collagen is the most abundant protein in human bone, providing structural support beneficial to bone healing. We hypothesized that coating collagen on Fe30Mn can improve osteointegration or activities promoting cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation, as the alloy degrades. After preparing collagen coating on Fe-30Mn via spin coating, we conducted a corrosion test and a direct cytotoxicity test on four Fe30Mn groups: non-porous and 10% porosity, with and without collagen coating. Furthermore, we evaluated and compared the morphologies of cells over a period of 7 days. Results showed that there was no significant difference between the collagen-coated and non-coated groups in corrosion rates, yet a significant decrease from the porous non-coated group to the porous collagen-coated group in cytotoxicity level was found. Cell morphology on the porous non-coated group displayed round shape, whereas that on the porous collagen-coated group displayed flattened spreading. The study showed that the collagen coating significantly increased the initial cell viability and adhesion for both the porous and non-porous groups without impeding their degradation rates. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 38:523-535, 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Purdue University, Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering, 701 West Stadium Avenue, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907-2045
| | - Ana Ulloa
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Purdue University, Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering, 701 West Stadium Avenue, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907-2045
| | - Eric Nauman
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.,School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.,Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| | - Lia Stanciu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Purdue University, Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering, 701 West Stadium Avenue, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907-2045
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Banerjee P, Roy C, Gepreel MAH, Ranjan A, Basu S, Bhattacharyya S. Probing Nanoscale Phase Separation at Atomic Resolution within β-Type Ti-Mn Alloy: A Potential Candidate for Biomedical Implants. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2019; 5:5005-5014. [PMID: 33455248 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b00808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Biocompatible β-type Ti alloys with high ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield strength are potential candidates for certain orthopedic and cardiovascular implants. Aiming for these applications, Ti alloy with 14 wt % Mn (Ti-14 Mn) as β-stabilizer was processed through thermomechanical treatment along with solutionizing and quenching, followed by 95% cold rolling, which resulted in ultrahigh UTS and yield strength. 3-[4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolimbromide assay with different cell lines suggests efficient cell growth on alloy surface without compromising biocompatibility. Cell adhesion and spreading assay show that cells are not only able to attach to the alloy surface but also able to spread and grow with normal morphology, which projects this material as a potential candidate for biomedical application. Previous studies on binary β-type Ti alloy systems treated with the above-mentioned processing route confirm the presence of nanoscale phase separation, which enhances its mechanical properties. To discover the same phenomena in the alloy of the present study, bright-field and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) imaging experiments were performed and nanoscale contrast-modulated lamella regions were observed. Geometrical phase analysis on complex-valued exit wave, reconstructed using focal series HRTEM images, demonstrates that the lamella is a result of d-spacing modulation. Ab initio calculation indicates that d-spacing modulation with the same crystal structure occurs due to composition modulation and was proved by scanning transmission electron microscopy imaging coupled with quantitative energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Correlating contrast, strain, and composition modulation confirms nanoscale phase separation, which is the first report of this phenomenon in Ti-Mn alloy system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritam Banerjee
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
| | - Chiranjit Roy
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
| | - Mohamed A-H Gepreel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, New Borg El-Arab City, Alexandria 21934, Egypt
| | - Amit Ranjan
- Cancer and Translational Research Laboratory, Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Tathawade, Pune 411033, India
| | - Soumya Basu
- Cancer and Translational Research Laboratory, Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Tathawade, Pune 411033, India
| | - Somnath Bhattacharyya
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
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He J, Ye H, Li Y, Fang J, Mei Q, Lu X, Ren F. Cancellous-Bone-like Porous Iron Scaffold Coated with Strontium Incorporated Octacalcium Phosphate Nanowhiskers for Bone Regeneration. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2019; 5:509-518. [PMID: 33405815 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b01188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The repair of large bone defects poses a grand challenge in tissue engineering. Thus, developing biocompatible scaffolds with mechanical and structural similarity to human cancellous bone is in great demand. Herein, we fabricated a three-dimensional (3D) porous iron (Fe) scaffold with interconnected pores via a template-assisted electrodeposition method. The porous Fe scaffold with a skeleton diameter of 143 μm had the porosity >90%, an average pore size of 345 μm, and a yield strength of 3.5 MPa. Such structure and mechanical strength were close to those of cancellous bone. In order to enhance the biocompatibility of the scaffold, strontium incorporated octacalcium phosphate (Sr-OCP) was coated on the skeletons of the porous Fe scaffold. The coated Sr-OCP was in the form of nanowhiskers with a mean diameter of 300 nm and length of 30 μm. Such Sr-OCP coating could effectively reduce the release rate of the Fe ions to a level which was safe for the human body. Both in vitro cytotoxicity tests by extraction method and direct contact assay confirmed that the Sr-OCP coating could promote the cell adhesion and substantially enhance the biocompatibility of the porous Fe scaffolds. Thus, the cancellous-bone-like porous structure with compatible mechanical properties and excellent biocompatibility enables the present Sr-OCP coated porous Fe scaffold to be a promising candidate for bone repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin He
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China.,School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
| | - Haixia Ye
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Yulei Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Ju Fang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
| | - Qingsong Mei
- School of Power and Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
| | - Xiong Lu
- Key Lab of Advanced Technologies of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610031, China
| | - Fuzeng Ren
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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Qi Y, Li X, He Y, Zhang D, Ding J. Mechanism of Acceleration of Iron Corrosion by a Polylactide Coating. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:202-218. [PMID: 30511850 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b17125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Strong and biodegradable materials are key to the development of next-generation medical devices for interventional treatment. Biodegradable polymers such as polylactide (PLA) have controllable degradation profiles, but their mechanical strength is much weaker than some metallic materials such as iron; on the other hand, tuning the corrosion rate of iron to a proper time range for biomedical applications has always been a challenge. Very recently, we have achieved a complete corrosion of iron stent in vivo within the clinically required time frame by combining a PLA coating, which provides a new biomaterial type for the next-generation biodegradable coronary stents termed as a metal-polymer composite stent. The underlying mechanism of accelerating iron corrosion by a PLA coating remains an open fundamental topic. Herein, we investigated the corrosion mechanism of an iron sheet under a PLA coating in the biomimetic in vitro condition. The Pourbaix diagram (potential vs pH) was calculated to present the thermodynamic driving force of iron corrosion in the biomimetic aqueous medium. Electrochemical methods were applied to track the dynamic corrosion process and inspect various potential cues influencing iron corrosion. The present work reveals that acceleration of iron corrosion by the PLA coating arises mainly from decreasing the local pH owing to PLA hydrolysis and from alleviating the deposition of the passivation layer by the polymer coating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongli Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science , Fudan University , Shanghai 200438 , China
| | - Xin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science , Fudan University , Shanghai 200438 , China
| | - Yao He
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science , Fudan University , Shanghai 200438 , China
| | - Deyuan Zhang
- R&D Center, Lifetech Scientific (Shenzhen) Co., Ltd. , Shenzhen 518057 , China
| | - Jiandong Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science , Fudan University , Shanghai 200438 , China
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