1
|
Mariani F, Decataldo F, Bonafè F, Tessarolo M, Cramer T, Gualandi I, Fraboni B, Scavetta E. High-Endurance Long-Term Potentiation in Neuromorphic Organic Electrochemical Transistors by PEDOT:PSS Electrochemical Polymerization on the Gate Electrode. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 37966461 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c10576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
The brain exhibits extraordinary information processing capabilities thanks to neural networks that can operate in parallel with minimal energy consumption. Memory and learning require the creation of new neural networks through the long-term modification of the structure of the synapses, a phenomenon called long-term plasticity. Here, we use an organic electrochemical transistor to simulate long-term potentiation and depotentiation processes. Similarly to what happens in a synapse, the polymerization of the 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) on the gate electrode modifies the structure of the device and boosts the ability of the gate potential to modify the conductivity of the channel. Operando AFM measurements were carried out to demonstrate the correlation between neuromorphic behavior and modification of the gate electrode. Long-term enhancement depends on both the number of pulses used and the gate potential, which generates long-term potentiation when a threshold of +0.7 V is overcome. Long-term depotentiation occurs by applying a +3.0 V potential and exploits the overoxidation of the deposited PEDOT:PSS. The induced states are stable for at least 2 months. The developed device shows very interesting characteristics in the field of neuromorphic electronics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Mariani
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Decataldo
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Filippo Bonafè
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Marta Tessarolo
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Tobias Cramer
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Isacco Gualandi
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Beatrice Fraboni
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Erika Scavetta
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Phouphetlinthong O, Partiot E, Bernou C, Sebban A, Gaudin R, Charlot B. Protruding cantilever microelectrode array to monitor the inner electrical activity of cerebral organoids. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:3603-3614. [PMID: 37489118 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00294b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
Stem cell-derived cerebral organoids are artificially grown miniature organ-like structures mimicking embryonic brain architecture. They are composed of multiple neural cell types with 3D cell layer organization exhibiting local field potential. Measuring the extracellular electrical activity by means of conventional planar microelectrode arrays is particularly challenging due to the 3D architecture of organoids. In order to monitor the intra-organoid electrical activity of thick spheroid-shaped samples, we developed long protruding microelectrode arrays able to penetrate the inner regions of cerebral organoids to measure the local potential of neurons within the organoids. A new microfabrication process has been developed which, thanks to the relaxation of internal stresses of a stack of materials deposited over a sacrificial layer, allows one to build a protruding cantilever microelectrode array placed at the apex of beams which rise vertically, over two hundred microns. These slender beams inserted deeply into the organoids give access to the recording of local field potential from neurons buried inside the organoid. This novel device shall provide valuable tools to study neural functions in greater detail.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oramany Phouphetlinthong
- IES, Institut d'Electronique et des Systèmes, UMR 5214 CNRS, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Emma Partiot
- IRIM, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, UMR 9004 CNRS, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Corentin Bernou
- IRIM, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, UMR 9004 CNRS, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Audrey Sebban
- IES, Institut d'Electronique et des Systèmes, UMR 5214 CNRS, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Raphael Gaudin
- IRIM, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier, UMR 9004 CNRS, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Benoit Charlot
- IES, Institut d'Electronique et des Systèmes, UMR 5214 CNRS, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gerasimov JY, Tu D, Hitaishi V, Harikesh PC, Yang CY, Abrahamsson T, Rad M, Donahue MJ, Ejneby MS, Berggren M, Forchheimer R, Fabiano S. A Biologically Interfaced Evolvable Organic Pattern Classifier. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2207023. [PMID: 36935358 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202207023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Future brain-computer interfaces will require local and highly individualized signal processing of fully integrated electronic circuits within the nervous system and other living tissue. New devices will need to be developed that can receive data from a sensor array, process these data into meaningful information, and translate that information into a format that can be interpreted by living systems. Here, the first example of interfacing a hardware-based pattern classifier with a biological nerve is reported. The classifier implements the Widrow-Hoff learning algorithm on an array of evolvable organic electrochemical transistors (EOECTs). The EOECTs' channel conductance is modulated in situ by electropolymerizing the semiconductor material within the channel, allowing for low voltage operation, high reproducibility, and an improvement in state retention by two orders of magnitude over state-of-the-art OECT devices. The organic classifier is interfaced with a biological nerve using an organic electrochemical spiking neuron to translate the classifier's output to a simulated action potential. The latter is then used to stimulate muscle contraction selectively based on the input pattern, thus paving the way for the development of adaptive neural interfaces for closed-loop therapeutic systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Y Gerasimov
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Deyu Tu
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Vivek Hitaishi
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Padinhare Cholakkal Harikesh
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Chi-Yuan Yang
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Tobias Abrahamsson
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Meysam Rad
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Mary J Donahue
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Malin Silverå Ejneby
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Magnus Berggren
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Robert Forchheimer
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Linköping University, Linköping, SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Simone Fabiano
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ding B, Jo IY, Yu H, Kim JH, Marsh AV, Gutiérrez-Fernández E, Ramos N, Rapley CL, Rimmele M, He Q, Martín J, Gasparini N, Nelson J, Yoon MH, Heeney M. Enhanced Organic Electrochemical Transistor Performance of Donor-Acceptor Conjugated Polymers Modified with Hybrid Glycol/Ionic Side Chains by Postpolymerization Modification. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2023; 35:3290-3299. [PMID: 37123107 PMCID: PMC10134426 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.3c00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Emergent bioelectronic technologies are underpinned by the organic electrochemical transistor (OECT), which employs an electrolyte medium to modulate the conductivity of its organic semiconductor channel. Here we utilize postpolymerization modification (PPM) on a conjugated polymer backbone to directly introduce glycolated or anionic side chains via fluoride displacement. The resulting polymers demonstrated increased volumetric capacitances, with subdued swelling, compared to their parent polymer in p-type enhancement mode OECTs. This increase in capacitance was attributed to their modified side chain configurations enabling cationic charge compensation for thin film electrochemical oxidation, as deduced from electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance measurements. An overall improvement in OECT performance was recorded for the hybrid glycol/ionic polymer compared to the parent, owing to its low swelling and bimodal crystalline orientation as imaged by grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering, enabling its high charge mobility at 1.02 cm2·V-1·s-1. Compromised device performance was recorded for the fully glycolated derivative compared to the parent, which was linked to its limited face-on stacking, which hindered OECT charge mobility at 0.26 cm2·V-1·s-1, despite its high capacitance. These results highlight the effectiveness of anionic side chain attachment by PPM as a means of increasing the volumetric capacitance of p-type conjugated polymers for OECTs, while retaining solid-state macromolecular properties that facilitate hole transport.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Ding
- Department
of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (White City Campus), 80 Wood Lane
Shepherd’s Bush, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - Il-Young Jo
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju
Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Hang Yu
- Department
of Physics and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Ji Hwan Kim
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju
Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Adam V. Marsh
- KAUST
Solar Center, Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
(KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Edgar Gutiérrez-Fernández
- POLYMAT
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Manuel de Lardizabal 3, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Nicolás Ramos
- POLYMAT
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Manuel de Lardizabal 3, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Charlotte L. Rapley
- Department
of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (White City Campus), 80 Wood Lane
Shepherd’s Bush, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - Martina Rimmele
- Department
of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (White City Campus), 80 Wood Lane
Shepherd’s Bush, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - Qiao He
- Department
of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (White City Campus), 80 Wood Lane
Shepherd’s Bush, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - Jaime Martín
- POLYMAT
University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Manuel de Lardizabal 3, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- Grupo de
Polímeros, Departamento de Física e Ciencias da Terra,
Centro de Investigacións Tecnolóxicas (CIT), Universidade da Coruña, Esteiro, 15471 Ferrol, Spain
| | - Nicola Gasparini
- Department
of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (White City Campus), 80 Wood Lane
Shepherd’s Bush, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - Jenny Nelson
- Department
of Physics and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Myung-Han Yoon
- School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju
Institute of Science and Technology, 123 Cheomdangwagi-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Martin Heeney
- Department
of Chemistry and Centre for Processable Electronics, Imperial College London, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (White City Campus), 80 Wood Lane
Shepherd’s Bush, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
- KAUST
Solar Center, Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
(KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yamamoto S. Polymer‐based
neuromorphic devices: resistive switches and organic electrochemical transistors. POLYM INT 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.6520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
|
6
|
Sun C, Liu X, Jiang Q, Ye X, Zhu X, Li RW. Emerging electrolyte-gated transistors for neuromorphic perception. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2023; 24:2162325. [PMID: 36684849 PMCID: PMC9848240 DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2022.2162325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
With the rapid development of intelligent robotics, the Internet of Things, and smart sensor technologies, great enthusiasm has been devoted to developing next-generation intelligent systems for the emulation of advanced perception functions of humans. Neuromorphic devices, capable of emulating the learning, memory, analysis, and recognition functions of biological neural systems, offer solutions to intelligently process sensory information. As one of the most important neuromorphic devices, Electrolyte-gated transistors (EGTs) have shown great promise in implementing various vital neural functions and good compatibility with sensors. This review introduces the materials, operating principle, and performances of EGTs, followed by discussing the recent progress of EGTs for synapse and neuron emulation. Integrating EGTs with sensors that faithfully emulate diverse perception functions of humans such as tactile and visual perception is discussed. The challenges of EGTs for further development are given.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cui Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Devices, and Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
| | - Xuerong Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Devices, and Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
| | - Qian Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Devices, and Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- College of Materials Sciences and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyu Ye
- CAS Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Devices, and Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- College of Materials Sciences and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojian Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Devices, and Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- College of Materials Sciences and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Run-Wei Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Devices, and Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Magnetic Materials and Application Technology, Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, China
- College of Materials Sciences and Opto-Electronic Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Xu YT, Yuan C, Zhou BY, Li Z, Hu J, Lin P, Zhao WW, Chen HY, Xu JJ. Silicon solar cell-enabled organic photoelectrochemical transistor optoelectronics. SCIENCE CHINA MATERIALS 2023; 66:1861-1869. [PMID: 36685049 PMCID: PMC9838416 DOI: 10.1007/s40843-022-2295-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) have been increasingly explored for innovative electronic devices. However, they inherently demand two power suppliers, which is unfavorable for the utilization of portable and wearable systems with strict energy requirements. Herein, by assembling a monocrystalline silicon solar cell into the OECT circuit with light as fuel, we demonstrated the possibility of a self-powered and light-modulated operation of organic photoelectrochemical transistor (OPECT) optoelectronics. Exemplified by poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)-based depletion-mode and accumulation-mode OECTs, different light-addressable configurations were constructed, and the corresponding characteristics were systematically studied and compared. Different device behaviors with distinct characteristics could be achieved with the appropriate usage of light stimulation. Toward applications, optologics were designed with various parameters depending on the incident irradiance. Light-controlled OPECT unipolar inverters were further demonstrated and optimized with respect to the power source and resistance. This work features new OPECT optoelectronics combined with proper flexible substrates and solar cells for potential applications in portable and wearable devices. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at 10.1007/s40843-022-2295-8.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Tong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| | - Cheng Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| | - Bing-Yu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| | - Zheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| | - Jin Hu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Special Functional Materials & Guangdong Research Center for Interfacial Engineering of Functional Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060 China
| | - Peng Lin
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Special Functional Materials & Guangdong Research Center for Interfacial Engineering of Functional Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060 China
| | - Wei-Wei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| | - Hong-Yuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| | - Jing-Juan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023 China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kumar A, Janzakova K, Coffinier Y, Pecqueur S, Alibart F. Theoretical modeling of dendrite growth from conductive wire electro-polymerization. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6395. [PMID: 35430578 PMCID: PMC9013362 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10082-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Electropolymerization is a bottom-up materials engineering process of micro/nano-scale that utilizes electrical signals to deposit conducting dendrites morphologies by a redox reaction in the liquid phase. It resembles synaptogenesis in the brain, in which the electrical stimulation in the brain causes the formation of synapses from the cellular neural composites. The strategy has been recently explored for neuromorphic engineering by establishing link between the electrical signals and the dendrites’ shapes. Since the geometry of these structures determines their electrochemical properties, understanding the mechanisms that regulate polymer assembly under electrically programmed conditions is an important aspect. In this manuscript, we simulate this phenomenon using mesoscale simulations, taking into account the important features of spatial–temporal potential mapping based on the time-varying signal, the motion of charged particles in the liquid due to the electric field, and the attachment of particles on the electrode. The study helps in visualizing the motion of the charged particles in different electrical conditions, which is not possible to probe experimentally. Consistent with the experiments, the higher AC frequency of electrical activities favors linear wire-like growth, while lower frequency leads to more dense and fractal dendrites’ growth, and voltage offset leads to asymmetrical growth. We find that dendrites' shape and growth process systematically depend on particle concentration and random scattering. We discover that the different dendrites’ architectures are associated with different Laplace and diffusion fields, which govern the monomers’ trajectory and subsequent dendrites’ growth. Such unconventional engineering routes could have a variety of applications from neuromorphic engineering to bottom-up computing strategies.
Collapse
|