Phenotype delineation of ZNF462 related syndrome

Expanding the genetics and phenotypes of ocular congenital cranial dysinnervation disorders

Purpose

To identify genetic etiologies and genotype/phenotype associations for unsolved ocular congenital cranial dysinnervation disorders (oCCDDs).

Methods

We coupled phenotyping with exome or genome sequencing of 467 pedigrees with genetically unsolved oCCDDs, integrating analyses of pedigrees, human and animal model phenotypes, and de novo variants to identify rare candidate single nucleotide variants, insertion/deletions, and structural variants disrupting protein-coding regions. Prioritized variants were classified for pathogenicity and evaluated for genotype/phenotype correlations.

Results

Analyses elucidated phenotypic subgroups, identified pathogenic/likely pathogenic variant(s) in 43/467 probands (9.2%), and prioritized variants of uncertain significance in 70/467 additional probands (15.0%). These included known and novel variants in established oCCDD genes, genes associated with syndromes that sometimes include oCCDDs (e.g., MYH10, KIF21B, TGFBR2, TUBB6), genes that fit the syndromic component of the phenotype but had no prior oCCDD association (e.g., CDK13, TGFB2), genes with no reported association with oCCDDs or the syndromic phenotypes (e.g., TUBA4A, KIF5C, CTNNA1, KLB, FGF21), and genes associated with oCCDD phenocopies that had resulted in misdiagnoses.

Conclusion

This study suggests that unsolved oCCDDs are clinically and genetically heterogeneous disorders often overlapping other Mendelian conditions and nominates many candidates for future replication and functional studies.

Validation of 3 Computer-Aided Facial Phenotyping Tools (DeepGestalt, GestaltMatcher, and D-Score): Comparative Diagnostic Accuracy Study

BACKGROUND

While characteristic facial features provide important clues for finding the correct diagnosis in genetic syndromes, valid assessment can be challenging. The next-generation phenotyping algorithm DeepGestalt analyzes patient images and provides syndrome suggestions. GestaltMatcher matches patient images with similar facial features. The new D-Score provides a score for the degree of facial dysmorphism.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to test state-of-the-art facial phenotyping tools by benchmarking GestaltMatcher and D-Score and comparing them to DeepGestalt.

METHODS

Using a retrospective sample of 4796 images of patients with 486 different genetic syndromes (London Medical Database, GestaltMatcher Database, and literature images) and 323 inconspicuous control images, we determined the clinical use of D-Score, GestaltMatcher, and DeepGestalt, evaluating sensitivity; specificity; accuracy; the number of supported diagnoses; and potential biases such as age, sex, and ethnicity.

RESULTS

DeepGestalt suggested 340 distinct syndromes and GestaltMatcher suggested 1128 syndromes. The top-30 sensitivity was higher for DeepGestalt (88%, SD 18%) than for GestaltMatcher (76%, SD 26%). DeepGestalt generally assigned lower scores but provided higher scores for patient images than for inconspicuous control images, thus allowing the 2 cohorts to be separated with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.73. GestaltMatcher could not separate the 2 classes (AUROC 0.55). Trained for this purpose, D-Score achieved the highest discriminatory power (AUROC 0.86). D-Score's levels increased with the age of the depicted individuals. Male individuals yielded higher D-scores than female individuals. Ethnicity did not appear to influence D-scores.

CONCLUSIONS

If used with caution, algorithms such as D-score could help clinicians with constrained resources or limited experience in syndromology to decide whether a patient needs further genetic evaluation. Algorithms such as DeepGestalt could support diagnosing rather common genetic syndromes with facial abnormalities, whereas algorithms such as GestaltMatcher could suggest rare diagnoses that are unknown to the clinician in patients with a characteristic, dysmorphic face.

De novo missense variants in ZBTB47 are associated with developmental delays, hypotonia, seizures, gait abnormalities, and variable movement abnormalities

The collection of known genetic etiologies of neurodevelopmental disorders continues to increase, including several syndromes associated with defects in zinc finger protein transcription factors (ZNFs) that vary in clinical severity from mild learning disabilities and developmental delay to refractory seizures and severe autism spectrum disorder. Here we describe a new neurodevelopmental disorder associated with variants in ZBTB47 (also known as ZNF651), which encodes zinc finger and BTB domain-containing protein 47. Exome sequencing (ES) was performed for five unrelated patients with neurodevelopmental disorders. All five patients are heterozygous for a de novo missense variant in ZBTB47, with p.(Glu680Gly) (c.2039A>G) detected in one patient and p.(Glu477Lys) (c.1429G>A) identified in the other four patients. Both variants impact conserved amino acid residues. Bioinformatic analysis of each variant is consistent with pathogenicity. We present five unrelated patients with de novo missense variants in ZBTB47 and a phenotype characterized by developmental delay with intellectual disability, seizures, hypotonia, gait abnormalities, and variable movement abnormalities. We propose that these variants in ZBTB47 are the basis of a new neurodevelopmental disorder.

A cell type-aware framework for nominating non-coding variants in Mendelian regulatory disorders

Unsolved Mendelian cases often lack obvious pathogenic coding variants, suggesting potential non-coding etiologies. Here, we present a single cell multi-omic framework integrating embryonic mouse chromatin accessibility, histone modification, and gene expression assays to discover cranial motor neuron (cMN) cis-regulatory elements and subsequently nominate candidate non-coding variants in the congenital cranial dysinnervation disorders (CCDDs), a set of Mendelian disorders altering cMN development. We generated single cell epigenomic profiles for ~86,000 cMNs and related cell types, identifying ~250,000 accessible regulatory elements with cognate gene predictions for ~145,000 putative enhancers. Seventy-five percent of elements (44 of 59) validated in an in vivo transgenic reporter assay, demonstrating that single cell accessibility is a strong predictor of enhancer activity. Applying our cMN atlas to 899 whole genome sequences from 270 genetically unsolved CCDD pedigrees, we achieved significant reduction in our variant search space and nominated candidate variants predicted to regulate known CCDD disease genes MAFB, PHOX2A, CHN1, and EBF3 - as well as new candidates in recurrently mutated enhancers through peak- and gene-centric allelic aggregation. This work provides novel non-coding variant discoveries of relevance to CCDDs and a generalizable framework for nominating non-coding variants of potentially high functional impact in other Mendelian disorders.

Further characterization of the 9q31 microdeletion phenotype; delineation of a common region of overlap containing ZNF462

BACKGROUND

Loss of function variants and whole gene deletions of ZNF462 has been associated with a novel phenotype of developmental delay/intellectual disability and distinctive facial features. Over two dozen cases have been reported to date and the condition is now known as Weiss-Kruszka syndrome (OMIM# 618619). There are several older reports in the literature and DECIPER detailing individuals with interstitial deletions of 9q31 involving the ZNF462 gene. Many of the characteristic facial features described in these microdeletion cases are similar to those who have been diagnosed with Weiss-Kruszka syndrome.

METHODS

We describe three additional patients with overlapping 9q31 deletions and compare the phenotypes of the microdeletion cases reported in the literature to Weiss-Kruszka syndrome.

RESULTS

Phenotypic overlap was observed between patients with 9q31 deletions and Weiss-Kruszka syndrome. Several additional features were noted in 9q31 deletion patients, including hearing loss, small head circumference, palate abnormalities and short stature.

CONCLUSIONS

The common region of overlap of microdeletion cases implicates ZNF462 as the main driver of the recognizable 9q31 microdeletion phenotype. The observation of additional features in patients with 9q31 microdeletions that are not reported in Weiss-Kruszka syndrome further suggests that other genes from the 9q31 region likely act synergistically with ZNF462 to affect phenotypic expression.

ZFP462 safeguards neural lineage specification by targeting G9A/GLP-mediated heterochromatin to silence enhancers

ZNF462 haploinsufficiency is linked to Weiss-Kruszka syndrome, a genetic disorder characterized by neurodevelopmental defects, including autism. Though conserved in vertebrates and essential for embryonic development, the molecular functions of ZNF462 remain unclear. We identified its murine homologue ZFP462 in a screen for mediators of epigenetic gene silencing. Here we show that ZFP462 safeguards neural lineage specification of mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) by targeting the H3K9-specific histone methyltransferase complex G9A/GLP to silence meso-endodermal genes. ZFP462 binds to transposable elements that are potential enhancers harbouring pluripotency and meso-endoderm transcription factor binding sites. Recruiting G9A/GLP, ZFP462 seeds heterochromatin, restricting transcription factor binding. Loss of ZFP462 in ESCs results in increased chromatin accessibility at target sites and ectopic expression of meso-endodermal genes. Taken together, ZFP462 confers lineage and locus specificity to the broadly expressed epigenetic regulator G9A/GLP. Our results suggest that aberrant activation of lineage non-specific genes in the neuronal lineage underlies ZNF462-associated neurodevelopmental pathology.

The presence of clear cell glands around the ovarian endometrioid cyst has an association with clear cell carcinoma

We found some clear cell glands appeared in the endometrioid cysts (ECs) of the ovary (EC-CCG). To explore the clinicopathological features, molecular biological changes, and prognosis in EC-CCG and analyze the association with ovarian clear cell borderline tumors (CCBT) and clear cell carcinoma (CCC). We retrospectively examined 35 cases of EC-CCG, compared them to 13 cases of clear cell cystadenomas, 14 cases of CCBT, and 49 cases of CCC. We analyzed the differences in clinicopathological features and prognosis between the four groups. Data on clinicopathology and survival were gathered. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed in all cases, and we analyzed the molecular changes of 2 cases of EC-CCG and 1 case of CCC by whole-exome sequencing (WES). EC-CCG shared some common clinicopathological features with CCBT: they occurred before menopause, had an elevated serum CA125 level in some cases, had an ovarian cystic mass on B-ultrasound, and had a risk of recurrence. Microscopically, both diseases were based on typical EC, and clear cell glands in the EC cyst wall were seen in varying numbers. Some cases of EC-CCG had IHC results similar to those of CCBT and CCC, with positive expression of HNF1β and NapsinA; decreased expression of ER, PR, and ARID1A; and increased expression of Ki67 (> 5%). WES results revealed that EC-CCG had mutations in TP53BP1, ZNF462, FN1, and FTL (which was also mutated in CCC). In summary, we found that clear cell glands appearing around EC in the ovary have an association with CCC.

An additional whole-exome sequencing study in 102 panel-undiagnosed patients: A retrospective study in a Chinese craniosynostosis cohort

Craniosynostosis (CRS) is a disease with prematurely fused cranial sutures. In the last decade, the whole-exome sequencing (WES) was widely used in Caucasian populations. The WES largely contributed in genetic diagnosis and exploration on new genetic mechanisms of CRS. In this study, we enrolled 264 CRS patients in China. After a 17-gene-panel sequencing designed in the previous study, 139 patients were identified with pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants according to the ACMG guideline as positive genetic diagnosis. WES was then performed on 102 patients with negative genetic diagnosis by panel. Ten P/LP variants were additionally identified in ten patients, increasing the genetic diagnostic yield by 3.8% (10/264). The novel variants in ANKH, H1-4, EIF5A, SOX6, and ARID1B expanded the mutation spectra of CRS. Then we designed a compatible research pipeline (RP) for further exploration. The RP could detect all seven P/LP SNVs and InDels identified above, in addition to 15 candidate variants found in 13 patients with worthy of further study. In sum, the 17-gene panel and WES identified positive genetic diagnosis for 56.4% patients (149/264) in 16 genes. At last, in our estimation, the genetic testing strategy of “Panel-first” saves 24.3% of the cost compared with “WES only”, suggesting the “Panel-first” is an economical strategy.

A Nonsense Variant of ZNF462 Gene Associated With Weiss-Kruszka Syndrome-Like Manifestations: A Case Study and Literature Review

Objective: This study aims to explore the clinical characteristics and genetic basis of a patient with unilateral ptosis and unilateral hearing impairment in pedigree analysis.

Methods: The clinical data of the child and his father were collected. The genomic DNA of the patient and his relatives were extracted from their peripheral blood samples and subjected to trio-whole-exome sequencing (trio-WES) and copy number variation analysis. Sanger sequencing was used to verify the potential variant.

Results: The sequencing analysis identified a heterozygous nonsense variant c.6431C > A (p.Ser2144*) in the ZNF462 gene (NM_021224.6) in the child and his father, whereas the locus in his asymptomatic mother, brother, and grandparents was found to be the wild type, which is an autosomal dominant inheritance. The new genetic variant has not been previously reported in the ClinVar and HGMD databases and the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD).

Conclusion: This is the first incidence of Weiss–Kruszka syndrome relating to the nonsense variant in the ZNF462 gene in China. The finding from this study is novel in its expansion of the variant spectrum of the ZNF462 gene and clarifies the genetic etiology of the patient and his father.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in a child with Weiss-Kruszka syndrome: Casual or causal association?

Weiss-Kruszka syndrome is a recently described genetic disorder characterized by craniofacial features, ptosis, dysgenesis of the corpus callosum, and neurodevelopmental impairment. It is caused by heterozygous loss-of-function variants
in ZNF462 gene. During the time, the original phenotype was expanded, including several complications, sensorineural hearing loss, congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism with anosmia and complete growth hormone deficiency associated with empty sella syndrome. Here we report the first case of Weiss-Kruszka syndrome, associated to a de novo 9q31.1q31.3 microdeletion showing an acute lymphoblastic leukemia. A speculation on the contribution of our case to the phenotypic expansion of WSKA is here discussed. More clinical and functional studies are needed to elucidate this association. A possible expansion of the WSKA phenotype is discussed.

A novel mutation in the ZNF462 gene c.3306dup; p.(Gln1103Thrfs*10) is associated to Weiss-Kruszka syndrome. A case report

BACKGROUND

Weiss-Kruszka syndrome (WSKA) is a rare disorder caused by mutations in the ZNF462 gene or deletion of 9p31.2 chromosome region, involving ZNF462. The prevalence of WSKA is unknown as only 24 affected individuals have been described. This syndrome should be suspected in individuals presenting mild global developmental delay and common craniofacial abnormalities.

CASE PRESENTATION

We presented a case of an infant, 3 years and 4-month life who presented pondostatural and psychomotor retardation, generalized hypotonia with hypermobility, bilateral palpebral ptosis, epicanthal folds, and poorly expressive facies as the main clinical features. These characteristics lead to the realization of genetics studies that resulted in the identification of a novel mutation c.3306dup; p.(Gln1103Thrfs*10) in ZNF462.

CONCLUSIONS

WSKA should be suspected in individuals presenting mild global developmental delay, ptosis, downslanting palpebral fissures, exaggerated Cupid's Bow, arched eyebrows, epicanthal folds and short upturned nose with a bulbous tip. Hypertrophy of the ventricular septum and severe OSA were described in our patient and should be considered in future reviews of the disease. This case is added to the reduced number of publications previously reported regarding WSKA and contributes to understanding the genetic characteristics, clinical features, and diagnosis of this syndrome.Abbreviations: WSKA: Weiss-Kruszka syndrome; CP: craniofacial perimeter; WES: whole-exome sequencing; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; OSA: obstructive sleep apnoea; ACMG: American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics.

Zinc Finger Proteins in Neuro-Related Diseases Progression

Zinc finger proteins (ZNF) are among the most abundant proteins in eukaryotic genomes. It contains several zinc finger domains that can selectively bind to certain DNA or RNA and associate with proteins, therefore, ZNF can regulate gene expression at the transcriptional and translational levels. In terms of neurological diseases, numerous studies have shown that many ZNF are associated with neurological diseases. The purpose of this review is to summarize the types and roles of ZNF in neuropsychiatric disorders. We will describe the structure and classification of ZNF, then focus on the pathophysiological role of ZNF in neuro-related diseases and summarize the mechanism of action of ZNF in neuro-related diseases.

Lessons learnt from multifaceted diagnostic approaches to the first 150 families in Victoria's Undiagnosed Diseases Program

BACKGROUND

Clinical exome sequencing typically achieves diagnostic yields of 30%-57.5% in individuals with monogenic rare diseases. Undiagnosed diseases programmes implement strategies to improve diagnostic outcomes for these individuals.

AIM

We share the lessons learnt from the first 3 years of the Undiagnosed Diseases Program-Victoria, an Australian programme embedded within a clinical genetics service in the state of Victoria with a focus on paediatric rare diseases.

METHODS

We enrolled families who remained without a diagnosis after clinical genomic (panel, exome or genome) sequencing between 2016 and 2018. We used family-based exome sequencing (family ES), family-based genome sequencing (family GS), RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and high-resolution chromosomal microarray (CMA) with research-based analysis.

RESULTS

In 150 families, we achieved a diagnosis or strong candidate in 64 (42.7%) (37 in known genes with a consistent phenotype, 3 in known genes with a novel phenotype and 24 in novel disease genes). Fifty-four diagnoses or strong candidates were made by family ES, six by family GS with RNA-seq, two by high-resolution CMA and two by data reanalysis.

CONCLUSION

We share our lessons learnt from the programme. Flexible implementation of multiple strategies allowed for scalability and response to the availability of new technologies. Broad implementation of family ES with research-based analysis showed promising yields post a negative clinical singleton ES. RNA-seq offered multiple benefits in family ES-negative populations. International data sharing strategies were critical in facilitating collaborations to establish novel disease-gene associations. Finally, the integrated approach of a multiskilled, multidisciplinary team was fundamental to having diverse perspectives and strategic decision-making.

Kallmann syndrome in a patient with Weiss-Kruszka syndrome and a de novo deletion in 9q31.2

Patients with deletions on chromosome 9q31.2 may exhibit delayed puberty, craniofacial phenotype including cleft lip/palate, and olfactory bulb hypoplasia. We report a patient with congenital HH with anosmia (Kallmann syndrome, KS) and a de novo 2.38 Mb heterozygous deletion in 9q31.2. The deletion breakpoints (determined with whole-genome linked-read sequencing) were in the FKTN gene (9:108,331,353) and in a non-coding area (9:110,707,332) (hg19). The deletion encompassed six protein-coding genes (FKTN, ZNF462, TAL2, TMEM38B, RAD23B, and KLF4). ZNF462 haploinsufficiency was consistent with the patient's Weiss-Kruszka syndrome (craniofacial phenotype, developmental delay, and sensorineural hearing loss), but did not explain his KS. In further analyses, he did not carry rare sequence variants in 32 known KS genes in whole-exome sequencing and displayed no aberrant splicing of 15 KS genes that were expressed in peripheral blood leukocyte transcriptome. The deletion was 1.8 Mb upstream of a KS candidate gene locus (PALM2AKAP2) but did not suppress its expression. In conclusion, this is the first report of a patient with Weiss-Kruszka syndrome and KS. We suggest that patients carrying a microdeletion in 9q31.2 should be evaluated for the presence of KS and KS-related features.

Empty Sella Syndrome Associated with Growth Hormone Deficiency: the First Case Report of Weiss-Kruszka Syndrome

Weiss-Kruszka syndrome (WSKA), caused by heterozygous loss-of-function variants in ZNF462 gene, is a recently described and extremely rare genetic disorder. The main phenotypes include characteristic craniofacial features, ptosis, dysgenesis of the corpus callosum, and neurodevelopmental impairment. We report the first Korean boy with molecularly confirmed WSKA presenting with an atypical manifestation. A 16-year-old boy with a history of bilateral ptosis surgery presented with short stature (-3.49 standard deviation score) and delayed puberty. The patient showed characteristic craniofacial features including an inverted triangular-shaped head, exaggerated Cupid's bow, arched eyebrows, down-slanting palpebral fissures, and poorly expressive face. He had a mild degree of intellectual disability and mild hypotonia. Endocrine studies in the patient demonstrated complete growth hormone deficiency (GHD) associated with empty sella syndrome (ESS), based on a magnetic resonance imaging study for the brain that showed a flattened pituitary gland and cerebrospinal fluid space herniated into the sella turcica. To identify the genetic cause, we performed whole exome sequencing (WES). Through WES, a novel de novo heterozygous nonsense variant, c.4185del; p.(Met1396Ter) in ZNF462 was identified. This is the first case of WSKA accompanied by primary ESS associated with GHD. More clinical and functional studies are needed to elucidate this association.

Identification of Novel Candidate Genes and Variants for Hearing Loss and Temporal Bone Anomalies

Background: Hearing loss remains an important global health problem that is potentially addressed through early identification of a genetic etiology, which helps to predict outcomes of hearing rehabilitation such as cochlear implantation and also to mitigate the long-term effects of comorbidities. The identification of variants for hearing loss and detailed descriptions of clinical phenotypes in patients from various populations are needed to improve the utility of clinical genetic screening for hearing loss. Methods: Clinical and exome data from 15 children with hearing loss were reviewed. Standard tools for annotating variants were used and rare, putatively deleterious variants were selected from the exome data. Results: In 15 children, 21 rare damaging variants in 17 genes were identified, including: 14 known hearing loss or neurodevelopmental genes, 11 of which had novel variants; and three candidate genes IST1, CBLN3 and GDPD5, two of which were identified in children with both hearing loss and enlarged vestibular aqueducts. Patients with variants within IST1 and MYO18B had poorer outcomes after cochlear implantation. Conclusion: Our findings highlight the importance of identifying novel variants and genes in ethnic groups that are understudied for hearing loss.

Efficiency of Computer-Aided Facial Phenotyping (DeepGestalt) in Individuals With and Without a Genetic Syndrome: Diagnostic Accuracy Study

Background

Collectively, an estimated 5% of the population have a genetic disease. Many of them feature characteristics that can be detected by facial phenotyping. Face2Gene CLINIC is an online app for facial phenotyping of patients with genetic syndromes. DeepGestalt, the neural network driving Face2Gene, automatically prioritizes syndrome suggestions based on ordinary patient photographs, potentially improving the diagnostic process. Hitherto, studies on DeepGestalt’s quality highlighted its sensitivity in syndromic patients. However, determining the accuracy of a diagnostic methodology also requires testing of negative controls.

Objective

The aim of this study was to evaluate DeepGestalt's accuracy with photos of individuals with and without a genetic syndrome. Moreover, we aimed to propose a machine learning–based framework for the automated differentiation of DeepGestalt’s output on such images.

Methods

Frontal facial images of individuals with a diagnosis of a genetic syndrome (established clinically or molecularly) from a convenience sample were reanalyzed. Each photo was matched by age, sex, and ethnicity to a picture featuring an individual without a genetic syndrome. Absence of a facial gestalt suggestive of a genetic syndrome was determined by physicians working in medical genetics. Photos were selected from online reports or were taken by us for the purpose of this study. Facial phenotype was analyzed by DeepGestalt version 19.1.7, accessed via Face2Gene CLINIC. Furthermore, we designed linear support vector machines (SVMs) using Python 3.7 to automatically differentiate between the 2 classes of photographs based on DeepGestalt's result lists.

Results

We included photos of 323 patients diagnosed with 17 different genetic syndromes and matched those with an equal number of facial images without a genetic syndrome, analyzing a total of 646 pictures. We confirm DeepGestalt’s high sensitivity (top 10 sensitivity: 295/323, 91%). DeepGestalt’s syndrome suggestions in individuals without a craniofacially dysmorphic syndrome followed a nonrandom distribution. A total of 17 syndromes appeared in the top 30 suggestions of more than 50% of nondysmorphic images. DeepGestalt’s top scores differed between the syndromic and control images (area under the receiver operating characteristic [AUROC] curve 0.72, 95% CI 0.68-0.76; P<.001). A linear SVM running on DeepGestalt’s result vectors showed stronger differences (AUROC 0.89, 95% CI 0.87-0.92; P<.001).

Conclusions

DeepGestalt fairly separates images of individuals with and without a genetic syndrome. This separation can be significantly improved by SVMs running on top of DeepGestalt, thus supporting the diagnostic process of patients with a genetic syndrome. Our findings facilitate the critical interpretation of DeepGestalt’s results and may help enhance it and similar computer-aided facial phenotyping tools.

Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome in diverse populations

Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RSTS) is an autosomal dominant disorder, caused by loss-of-function variants in CREBBP or EP300. Affected individuals present with distinctive craniofacial features, broad thumbs and/or halluces, and intellectual disability. RSTS phenotype has been well characterized in individuals of European descent but not in other populations. In this study, individuals from diverse populations with RSTS were assessed by clinical examination and facial analysis technology. Clinical data of 38 individuals from 14 different countries were analyzed. The median age was 7 years (age range: 7 months to 47 years), and 63% were females. The most common phenotypic features in all population groups included broad thumbs and/or halluces in 97%, convex nasal ridge in 94%, and arched eyebrows in 92%. Face images of 87 individuals with RSTS (age range: 2 months to 47 years) were collected for evaluation using facial analysis technology. We compared images from 82 individuals with RSTS against 82 age- and sex-matched controls and obtained an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.99 (p < .001), demonstrating excellent discrimination efficacy. The discrimination was, however, poor in the African group (AUC: 0.79; p = .145). Individuals with EP300 variants were more effectively discriminated (AUC: 0.95) compared with those with CREBBP variants (AUC: 0.93). This study shows that clinical examination combined with facial analysis technology may enable earlier and improved diagnosis of RSTS in diverse populations.

Turner syndrome in diverse populations

Turner syndrome (TS) is a common multiple congenital anomaly syndrome resulting from complete or partial absence of the second X chromosome. In this study, we explore the phenotype of TS in diverse populations using clinical examination and facial analysis technology. Clinical data from 78 individuals and images from 108 individuals with TS from 19 different countries were analyzed. Individuals were grouped into categories of African descent (African), Asian, Latin American, Caucasian (European descent), and Middle Eastern. The most common phenotype features across all population groups were short stature (86%), cubitus valgus (76%), and low posterior hairline 70%. Two facial analysis technology experiments were conducted: TS versus general population and TS versus Noonan syndrome. Across all ethnicities, facial analysis was accurate in diagnosing TS from frontal facial images as measured by the area under the curve (AUC). An AUC of 0.903 (p < .001) was found for TS versus general population controls and 0.925 (p < .001) for TS versus individuals with Noonan syndrome. In summary, we present consistent clinical findings from global populations with TS and additionally demonstrate that facial analysis technology can accurately distinguish TS from the general population and Noonan syndrome.

The genetic workup for structural congenital heart disease

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most prevalent birth defect and is the result of multiple etiologies including genetic and environmental causes. This article reviews the genetic workup for structural CHD in the clinical setting, beginning with CHD epidemiology and etiology and then moving to genetic testing, clinical evaluation, and genetic counseling. An algorithm is presented as a guide to genetic test selection, and available tests are explained with their respective advantages and limitations. Finally, future advances are discussed. As this review focuses on structural heart disease, isolated cardiomyopathies, inherited primary arrhythmia syndromes and aortopathies are not discussed.