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Abstract
Neuroinflammation is implicated in contributing to a variety of neurologic and somatic illnesses including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and depression. In this chapter, we focus on the role of neuroinflammation in mediating these three illnesses and portray interactions between the immune response and the central nervous system in the context of sex differences in disease progression. The majority of this chapter is supported by clinical findings; however, we occasionally utilize preclinical models where human studies are currently lacking. We begin by detailing the pathology of neuroinflammation, distinguishing between acute and chronic inflammation, and examining contributions from the innate and adaptive immune systems. Next, we summarize potential mechanisms of immune cell mediators including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α, and IL-6 in AD, PD, and depression development. Given the strong sex bias seen in these illnesses, we additionally examine the role of sex hormones, e.g., estrogen and testosterone in mediating neuroinflammation at the cellular level. Systematically, we detail how sex hormones may contribute to distinct behavioral and clinical symptoms and prognosis between males and females with AD, PD, or depression. Finally, we highlight the possible role of exercise in alleviating neuroinflammation, as well as evidence that antiinflammatory drug therapies improve cognitive symptoms observed in brain-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepika Mukhara
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Unsong Oh
- Department of Neurology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Gretchen N Neigh
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.
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2
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Neprilysin Confers Genetic Susceptibility to Alzheimer's Disease in Han Chinese. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:4883-92. [PMID: 26362309 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9411-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, with increasing incidence all over the world. Amyloid-β (Aβ) was considered to be the original cause to AD, and many reported pathogenic or risk genes for AD were located in the Aβ generation and degradation pathways. Neprilysin (NEP), insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), and matrix metalloprotease-9 (MMP-9) are the most important Aβ-degrading proteases. Accumulating genetic evidence suggested that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of these genes confer susceptibility to AD in Caucasian populations. In this study, we screened eight SNPs within these three Aβ-degrading protease genes in 1475 individuals of two independent Han Chinese case-control cohorts. SNP rs1816558 of NEP was found to be significantly associated with AD after adjustment for ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOEε4) and the Bonferroni correction. The remaining variants were not associated with risk of AD in Han Chinese sample set. Further data mining revealed that messenger RNA (mRNA) level of NEP substantially increased during the development of AD and was positively correlated with APP expression. The combined results indicated that NEP confers genetic susceptibility to AD in Han Chinese populations.
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Schupf N, Lee A, Park N, Dang LH, Pang D, Yale A, Oh DKT, Krinsky-McHale SJ, Jenkins EC, Luchsinger JA, Zigman WB, Silverman W, Tycko B, Kisselev S, Clark L, Lee JH. Candidate genes for Alzheimer's disease are associated with individual differences in plasma levels of beta amyloid peptides in adults with Down syndrome. Neurobiol Aging 2015; 36:2907.e1-10. [PMID: 26166206 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We examined the contribution of candidates genes for Alzheimer's disease (AD) to individual differences in levels of beta amyloid peptides in adults with Down syndrom, a population at high risk for AD. Participants were 254 non-demented adults with Down syndrome, 30-78 years of age. Genomic deoxyribonucleic acid was genotyped using an Illumina GoldenGate custom array. We used linear regression to examine differences in levels of Aβ peptides associated with the number of risk alleles, adjusting for age, sex, level of intellectual disability, race and/or ethnicity, and the presence of the APOE ε4 allele. For Aβ42 levels, the strongest gene-wise association was found for a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on CAHLM1; for Aβ40 levels, the strongest gene-wise associations were found for SNPs in IDE and SOD1, while the strongest gene-wise associations with levels of the Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio were found for SNPs in SORCS1. Broadly classified, variants in these genes may influence amyloid precursor protein processing (CALHM1, IDE), vesicular trafficking (SORCS1), and response to oxidative stress (SOD1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Schupf
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; G.H. Sergievsky Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Annie Lee
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Naeun Park
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lam-Ha Dang
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Deborah Pang
- Department of Psychology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY, USA
| | - Alexander Yale
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - David Kyung-Taek Oh
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sharon J Krinsky-McHale
- Department of Psychology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY, USA
| | - Edmund C Jenkins
- Department of Human Genetics, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY, USA
| | - José A Luchsinger
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Warren B Zigman
- Department of Psychology, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY, USA
| | - Wayne Silverman
- Kennedy Krieger Institute and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Benjamin Tycko
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sergey Kisselev
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorraine Clark
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joseph H Lee
- The Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; G.H. Sergievsky Center, New York, NY, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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4
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Wang S, He F, Wang Y. Association between polymorphisms of the insulin-degrading enzyme gene and late-onset Alzheimer disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2015; 28:94-8. [PMID: 25414272 DOI: 10.1177/0891988714554707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) gene is a strong positional and biological candidate for late-onset Alzheimer disease (LOAD) susceptibility, with recent studies independently demonstrating an association between IDE gene variants and LOAD. However, previous data have been controversial. To investigate the relationship between IDE gene polymorphisms and LOAD risk, a case-control association study of 406 Han Chinese participants in Xinjiang, China, was undertaken. The LOAD and control groups consisted of 202 and 204 participants, respectively. The single-nucleotide polymorphisms rs1887922 and rs1999764 of the IDE gene were linked to LOAD incidence. The presence of the CT+CC genotype of rs1999764 had a protective effect compared to the TT genotype (adjusted P=.0001; odds ratio [OR]=0.226; 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.116-0.441), while the CT+CC genotype of rs1887922 was associated with increased LOAD risk (adjusted P=.0001; OR=3.640; 95% CI=1.889-7.016). Moreover, the effects of rs1887922 and rs1999764 were associated with LOAD risk independent of the apolipoprotein E ∊4 polymorphism and were more significant in men and women, respectively. These results demonstrate that the polymorphisms rs1887922 and rs1999764 of the IDE gene are associated with LOAD susceptibility in the Xinjiang Han population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shitao Wang
- Department of Cardes Health Care, People's Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Anhui Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Feiyan He
- Department of Cardes Health Care, People's Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Anhui Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Cardes Health Care, People's Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Anhui Medical University, Urumqi, China
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5
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Turano E, Busetto G, Marconi S, Guzzo F, Farinazzo A, Commisso M, Bistaffa E, Angiari S, Musumeci S, Sotgiu S, Bonetti B. Neurotoxicity and synaptic plasticity impairment of N-acetylglucosamine polymers: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2015; 36:1780-91. [PMID: 25735590 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We assessed whether polymers of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) have any pathogenetic role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). First, by using specific dyes, we found deposits of polymers of GlcNAc in sporadic but not in familial AD. We found that neurons and microglia exposed to GlcNAc and uridine diphosphate (UDP)-GlcNAc are able to form GlcNAc polymers, which display a significant neurotoxicity in vitro. Moreover, the exposure of organotypic hippocampal cultures to the same compounds led to synaptic impairment with decreased levels of syntaxin and synaptophysin. In addition, acute hippocampal slices treated with GlcNAc/UDP-GlcNAc showed a clear reduction of long-term potentiation of excitatory synapses. Finally, we demonstrated that microglial cells are able to phagocytose chitin particles and, when exposed to GlcNAc/UDP-GlcNAc, show cellular activation and intracellular deposition of GlcNAc polymers that are eventually released in the extracellular space. Taken together, our results indicate that both microglia and neurons produce GlcNAc polymers, which trigger neurotoxicity both directly and through microglia activation. GlcNAc polymer-driven neurotoxicity offers novel pathogenic insights in sporadic AD and new therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ermanna Turano
- Section of Neurology, Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Busetto
- Section of Physiology and Psychology, Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy; Italian Institute of Neuroscience, Verona, Italy
| | - Silvia Marconi
- Section of Neurology, Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Flavia Guzzo
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Alessia Farinazzo
- Section of Neurology, Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Mauro Commisso
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Edoardo Bistaffa
- Section of Neurology, Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Stefano Angiari
- Department of Pathology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Salvatore Musumeci
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council, Catania, Italy
| | - Stefano Sotgiu
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Bruno Bonetti
- Section of Neurology, Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
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Cheng H, Wang L, Shi T, Shang Y, Jiang L. Association of insulin degrading enzyme gene polymorphisms with Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis. Int J Neurosci 2014; 125:328-35. [PMID: 25105907 DOI: 10.3109/00207454.2014.941440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic degenerative disorder. It is caused by both genetic and environmental factors. The association of Insulin Degrading Enzyme (IDE) genotypes rs4646953, rs2251101 and rs1544210 with AD has been detected, but the findings were conflicted, however, Apolipoprotein-E (APOE)-ε4 allele has been observed as a genetic risk factor for AD. To investigate the issue, a meta-analysis was performed. We searched PubMed, Springer Link, AlzGene and CNKI for relevant literatures published by June 2013. Pooled odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated to explore the significant association. A total of 11 studies comprising 5771 cases and 5474 controls were considered in final meta-analysis. We found that weak connections existed between rs4646953 (TT vs. CC: z = 2.24, p = 0.025, OR = 1.536) and AD, but no significant associations have been found between other IDE gene single nucleotide polymorphisms of rs4646953, rs2251101 and rs1544210 with AD. We certified that APOE-ε4 allele was still be a suspected factor to AD. There was no evidence for obvious publication bias in overall meta-analysis. Furthermore, larger-scale randomized controlled trials are necessary to validate the association between IDE gene polymorphisms with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huawei Cheng
- 1Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Provincial Hospital of Anhui Medical University & Western of Affiliated Provincial Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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Zhang Y, Wang B, Wan H, Zhou Q, Li T. Meta-analysis of the insulin degrading enzyme polymorphisms and susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 2013; 541:132-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.01.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Ridge PG, Maxwell TJ, Corcoran CD, Norton MC, Tschanz JT, O’Brien E, Kerber RA, Cawthon RM, Munger RG, Kauwe JSK. Mitochondrial genomic analysis of late onset Alzheimer's disease reveals protective haplogroups H6A1A/H6A1B: the Cache County Study on Memory in Aging. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45134. [PMID: 23028804 PMCID: PMC3444479 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and AD risk clusters within families. Part of the familial aggregation of AD is accounted for by excess maternal vs. paternal inheritance, a pattern consistent with mitochondrial inheritance. The role of specific mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variants and haplogroups in AD risk is uncertain. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We determined the complete mitochondrial genome sequence of 1007 participants in the Cache County Study on Memory in Aging, a population-based prospective cohort study of dementia in northern Utah. AD diagnoses were made with a multi-stage protocol that included clinical examination and review by a panel of clinical experts. We used TreeScanning, a statistically robust approach based on haplotype networks, to analyze the mtDNA sequence data. Participants with major mitochondrial haplotypes H6A1A and H6A1B showed a reduced risk of AD (p=0.017, corrected for multiple comparisons). The protective haplotypes were defined by three variants: m.3915G>A, m.4727A>G, and m.9380G>A. These three variants characterize two different major haplogroups. Together m.4727A>G and m.9380G>A define H6A1, and it has been suggested m.3915G>A defines H6A. Additional variants differentiate H6A1A and H6A1B; however, none of these variants had a significant relationship with AD case-control status. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Our findings provide evidence of a reduced risk of AD for individuals with mtDNA haplotypes H6A1A and H6A1B. These findings are the results of the largest study to date with complete mtDNA genome sequence data, yet the functional significance of the associated haplotypes remains unknown and replication in others studies is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perry G. Ridge
- Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
- ARUP Institute for Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Taylor J. Maxwell
- Human Genetics Center, University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Christopher D. Corcoran
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- Center for Epidemiologic Studies, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Maria C. Norton
- Center for Epidemiologic Studies, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Family Consumer and Human Development, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - JoAnn T. Tschanz
- Center for Epidemiologic Studies, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth O’Brien
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Richard A. Kerber
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Richard M. Cawthon
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Ronald G. Munger
- Center for Epidemiologic Studies, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - John S. K. Kauwe
- Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
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Hyun J, Hashimoto C. Physiological effects of manipulating the level of insulin-degrading enzyme in insulin-producing cells of Drosophila. Fly (Austin) 2011; 5:53-7. [PMID: 21212741 DOI: 10.4161/fly.5.1.14080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) degrades insulin and other peptides, including the Aβ peptide of Alzheimer's disease. However, the mechanism by which IDE acts on its substrates in vivo is unclear, and its role in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease is controversial. Here, we show that in Drosophila knocking down IDE in insulin-producing cells (IPCs) of the brain results in increased body weight and fecundity, decreased circulating sugar levels, and reduced lifespan. Moreover, knocking down and over-expressing IDE in IPCs have opposite physiological effects. As mis-regulated insulin signaling in peripheral tissues is known to cause similar phenotypes, our data suggest a role for Drosophila IDE in determining the level of insulin-like peptides made by IPCs that systemically activate insulin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joogyung Hyun
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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Wang F, Shu C, Jia L, Zuo X, Zhang Y, Zhou A, Qin W, Song H, Wei C, Zhang F, Hong Z, Tang M, Wang DM, Jia J. Exploration of 16 candidate genes identifies the association of IDE with Alzheimer's disease in Han Chinese. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 33:1014.e1-9. [PMID: 20880607 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) has a complex pattern of inheritance and many genes have recently been reported to contribute to the disease susceptibility. We selected 106 SNPs within 16 candidate genes and performed a multistage association study using 4 sample sets consisting of 731 AD patients and 738 control subjects to identify genetic factors for AD in Han Chinese. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the insulin degrading enzyme gene (IDE), rs3781239, showed a significant association with AD. The C allele increased the risk of AD 1.72-fold than the G allele (odds ratio [OR] = 1.72, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.17-2.53, p = 0.006) and CC carriers had a 4.89-fold higher risk for AD than that of the carriers with CG and GG genotypes (odds ratio = 4.89, 95% CI = 1.85-12.91, p = 0.001). Moreover, the CC genotype was significantly associated with earlier age at onset (p = 0.001, hazard ratio [HR] = 2.09, 95% CI = 1.38-3.18). Our data suggest that the polymorphism of IDE is associated with susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease in Han Chinese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fen Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xuan Wu Hospital of the Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Abstract
Extensive β-amyloid (Aβ) deposits in brain parenchyma
in the form of senile plaques and in blood vessels in the form of
amyloid angiopathy are pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's
disease (AD). The mechanisms underlying Aβ deposition
remain unclear. Major efforts have focused on Aβ production,
but there is little to suggest that increased production of
Aβ plays a role in Aβ deposition, except for rare
familial forms of AD. Thus, other mechanisms must be involved in
the accumulation of Aβ in AD. Recent data shows that
impaired clearance may play an important role in Aβ
accumulation in the pathogenesis of AD. This review focuses on our
current knowledge of Aβ-degrading enzymes, including
neprilysin (NEP), endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE),
insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), angiotensin-converting enzyme
(ACE), and the plasmin/uPA/tPA system as they relate to amyloid
deposition in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deng-Shun Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
- *Deng-Shun Wang:
| | - Dennis W. Dickson
- Departments of Pathology (Neuropathology) and Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - James S. Malter
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
- Waisman Center for Developmental Disabilities, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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Phylogenetics applied to genotype/phenotype association and selection analyses with sequence data from angptl4 in humans. Int J Mol Sci 2010; 11:370-85. [PMID: 20162021 PMCID: PMC2821009 DOI: 10.3390/ijms11010370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2009] [Revised: 01/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Genotype/phenotype association analyses (Treescan) with plasma lipid levels and functional site prediction methods (TreeSAAP and PolyPhen) were performed using sequence data for ANGPTL4 from 3,551 patients in the Dallas Heart Study. Biological assays of rare variants in phenotypic tails and results from a Treescan analysis were used as “known” variants to assess the site prediction abilities of PolyPhen and TreeSAAP. The E40K variant in European Americans and the R278Q variant in African Americans were significantly associated with multiple lipid phenotypes. Combining TreeSAAP and PolyPhen performed well to predict “known” functional variants while reducing noise from false positives.
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Lee HP, Casadesus G, Zhu X, Lee HG, Perry G, Smith MA, Gustaw-Rothenberg K, Lerner A. All-trans retinoic acid as a novel therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2010; 9:1615-21. [PMID: 19903021 DOI: 10.1586/ern.09.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Retinoic acid, an essential factor derived from vitamin A, has been shown to have a variety of functions including roles as an antioxidant and in cellular differentiation. Since oxidative stress and dedifferentiation of neurons appear to be common pathological elements of a number of neurodegenerative disorders, we speculated that retinoic acid may offer therapeutic promise. In this vein, recent compelling evidence indicates a role of retinoic acid in cognitive activities and anti-amyloidogenic properties. Here, we review the actions of retinoic acid that indicate that it may have therapeutic properties ideally served for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Pil Lee
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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Carrasquillo MM, Belbin O, Zou F, Allen M, Ertekin-Taner N, Ansari M, Wilcox SL, Kashino MR, Ma L, Younkin LH, Younkin SG, Younkin CS, Dincman TA, Howard ME, Howell CC, Stanton CM, Watson CM, Crump M, Vitart V, Hayward C, Hastie ND, Rudan I, Campbell H, Polasek O, Brown K, Passmore P, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Kehoe PG, Mann DM, Smith AD, Beaumont H, Warden D, Holmes C, Heun R, Kölsch H, Kalsheker N, Pankratz VS, Dickson DW, Graff-Radford NR, Petersen RC, Wright AF, Younkin SG, Morgan K. Concordant association of insulin degrading enzyme gene (IDE) variants with IDE mRNA, Abeta, and Alzheimer's disease. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8764. [PMID: 20098734 PMCID: PMC2808243 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The insulin-degrading enzyme gene (IDE) is a strong functional and positional candidate for late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). Methodology/Principal Findings We examined conserved regions of IDE and its 10 kb flanks in 269 AD cases and 252 controls thereby identifying 17 putative functional polymorphisms. These variants formed eleven haplotypes that were tagged with ten variants. Four of these showed significant association with IDE transcript levels in samples from 194 LOAD cerebella. The strongest, rs6583817, which has not previously been reported, showed unequivocal association (p = 1.5×10−8, fold-increase = 2.12,); the eleven haplotypes were also significantly associated with transcript levels (global p = 0.003). Using an in vitro dual luciferase reporter assay, we found that rs6583817 increases reporter gene expression in Be(2)-C (p = 0.006) and HepG2 (p = 0.02) cell lines. Furthermore, using data from a recent genome-wide association study of two Croatian isolated populations (n = 1,879), we identified a proxy for rs6583817 that associated significantly with decreased plasma Aβ40 levels (ß = −0.124, p = 0.011) and total measured plasma Aβ levels (b = −0.130, p = 0.009). Finally, rs6583817 was associated with decreased risk of LOAD in 3,891 AD cases and 3,605 controls. (OR = 0.87, p = 0.03), and the eleven IDE haplotypes (global p = 0.02) also showed significant association. Conclusions Thus, a previously unreported variant unequivocally associated with increased IDE expression was also associated with reduced plasma Aß40 and decreased LOAD susceptibility. Genetic association between LOAD and IDE has been difficult to replicate. Our findings suggest that targeted testing of expression SNPs (eSNPs) strongly associated with altered transcript levels in autopsy brain samples may be a powerful way to identify genetic associations with LOAD that would otherwise be difficult to detect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minerva M. Carrasquillo
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Olivia Belbin
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Fanggeng Zou
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mariet Allen
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Genetics Unit, The Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Nilufer Ertekin-Taner
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Morad Ansari
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Genetics Unit, The Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Samantha L. Wilcox
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mariah R. Kashino
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Li Ma
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Linda H. Younkin
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Samuel G. Younkin
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Curtis S. Younkin
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Toros A. Dincman
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Melissa E. Howard
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Chanley C. Howell
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Chloe M. Stanton
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Christopher M. Watson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Michael Crump
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Veronique Vitart
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Genetics Unit, The Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Hayward
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Genetics Unit, The Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas D. Hastie
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Genetics Unit, The Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Igor Rudan
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Croatian Centre for Global Health, University of Split Medical School, Split, Croatia
- Centre for Clinical Medical Research, University Hospital “Sestre Milosrdnice”, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Harry Campbell
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Ozren Polasek
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Medical Research, University Hospital “Sestre Milosrdnice”, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Kristelle Brown
- School of Molecular Medical Sciences, Institute of Genetics, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Passmore
- Division of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - David Craig
- Division of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Bernadette McGuinness
- Division of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Todd
- Division of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick G. Kehoe
- Department of Clinical Science at North Bristol, University of Bristol, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - David M. Mann
- Greater Manchester Neurosciences Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - A. David Smith
- Oxford Project to Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA), University Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Helen Beaumont
- Oxford Project to Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA), University Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Donald Warden
- Oxford Project to Investigate Memory and Ageing (OPTIMA), University Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Clive Holmes
- Memory Assessment and Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Reinhard Heun
- Division of Neuroscience, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Heike Kölsch
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Noor Kalsheker
- School of Molecular Medical Sciences, Institute of Genetics, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - V. Shane Pankratz
- Department of Biostatistics, Mayo Clinic and Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Dennis W. Dickson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Neill R. Graff-Radford
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Ronald C. Petersen
- Department of Neurology and the Mayo Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Alan F. Wright
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Genetics Unit, The Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Steven G. Younkin
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kevin Morgan
- School of Molecular Medical Sciences, Institute of Genetics, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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15
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Lloyd SE, Rossor M, Fox N, Mead S, Collinge J. HECTD2, a candidate susceptibility gene for Alzheimer's disease on 10q. BMC MEDICAL GENETICS 2009; 10:90. [PMID: 19754925 PMCID: PMC2753310 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2350-10-90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2009] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Background Late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the deposition of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain and is the major cause of dementia. Multiple genetic loci, including 10q, have been implicated in LOAD but to date, with the exception of APOE, the underlying genes have not been identified. HECTD2 maps to 10q and has been implicated in susceptibility to human prion diseases which are also neurodegenerative conditions associated with accumulation of misfolded host proteins. In this study we test whether the HECTD2 susceptibility allele seen in prion disease is also implicated in LOAD. Methods DNA from 320 individuals with Alzheimer's disease and 601 controls were genotyped for a HECTD2 intronic tagging SNP, rs12249854 (A/T). Groups were further analysed following stratification by APOE genotype. Results The rs12249854 minor allele (A) frequency was higher (5.8%) in the Alzheimer's disease group as compared to the controls (3.9%), however, this was not statistically significant (P = 0.0668). No significant difference was seen in minor allele frequency in the presence or absence of the APOE ε4 allele. Conclusion The common haplotypes of HECTD2, tagged by rs12249854, are not associated with susceptibility to LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Lloyd
- MRC Prion Unit, Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK.
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16
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Seripa D, Panza F, Franceschi M, D'Onofrio G, Solfrizzi V, Dallapiccola B, Pilotto A. Non-apolipoprotein E and apolipoprotein E genetics of sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2009; 8:214-36. [PMID: 19496238 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2008.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The genetic epidemiology of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (SAD) remains a very active area of research,making it one of the most prolifically published areas in medicine and biology. Numerous putative candidate genes have been proposed. However, with the exception of apolipoprotein E (APOE), the only confirmed genetic risk factor for SAD, all the other data appear to be not consistent. Nevertheless, the genetic risk for SAD attributable to the APOE gene in the general population is 20-0%, providing a strong evidence for the existence of additional genetic risk factors. The first part of the present article was dedicated to non-APOE genetics of SAD, reviewing chromosomes-by-chromosomes the available data concerning the major candidate genes. The second part of this article focused on some recently discovered aspects of the APOE polymorphism and their implications for SAD. An attempt to identify the future directions for non-APOE genetic research in SAD was also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Seripa
- Geriatric Unit and Gerontology-Geriatrics Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Sciences, IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo (FG), Italy.
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17
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Zuo X, Jia J. Promoter polymorphisms which modulate insulin degrading enzyme expression may increase susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 2009; 1249:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 10/01/2008] [Accepted: 10/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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IDE Gene Polymorphism Influences on BPSD in Mild Dementia of Alzheimer's Type. Curr Gerontol Geriatr Res 2008:858759. [PMID: 19415148 PMCID: PMC2671997 DOI: 10.1155/2008/858759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2008] [Revised: 07/14/2008] [Accepted: 10/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) degrades amyloid beta (Abeta), which may inhibit the accumulation of Abeta in a brain affected with dementia of Alzheimer's type (DAT). A decrease in the activity of IDE results in changes in glucose utilization in the brain, which could affect the cognitive and psychiatric symptoms of DAT. We investigated a possible association of IDE gene polymorphism and the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in mild DAT. The genotyping for IDE and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) was determined in 207 patients with mild DAT and 215 controls. The occurrence of BPSD was demonstrated using the Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Rating Scale (BEHAVE-AD). IDE gene polymorphism is unlikely to play a substantial role in conferring susceptibility to DAT, but it may be involved in the development of affective disturbance through the course of mild DAT, regardless of the presence of an ApoE epsilon4 allele. The present data could be the result of a small sample size. Further investigations using larger samples are thus required to clarify the correlation between IDE gene polymorphism, susceptibility to DAT, and emergence of BPSD.
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19
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Nowotny P, Simcock X, Bertelsen S, Hinrichs AL, Kauwe JSK, Mayo K, Smemo S, Morris JC, Goate A. Association studies testing for risk for late-onset Alzheimer's disease with common variants in the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP). Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007; 144B:469-74. [PMID: 17427190 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Linkage studies have suggested a susceptibility locus for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) on chromosome 21. A functional candidate gene in this region is the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene. Previously, coding mutations in APP have been associated with early onset Alzheimer's Disease (EOAD). Three copies of APP are associated with AD pathology in Down's syndrome and in EOAD, suggesting that overexpression of APP may be a risk factor for LOAD. Although APP is a strong functional and positional candidate, to date there has been no thorough investigation using a dense map of SNPs across the APP gene. In order to investigate the role of common variation in the APP gene in the risk of LOAD, we genotyped 44 SNPs, spanning 300 kb spanning the entire gene, in a large case-control series of 738 AD cases and 657 healthy controls. The SNPs showed no association in genotypic or allelic tests, even after stratification for presence or absence of the APOE 4 allele. Haplotype analysis also failed to reveal significant association with any common haplotypes. These results suggest that common variation in the APP gene is not a significant risk factor for LOAD. However, we cannot rule out the possibility that multiple rare variants that increase APP expression or Abeta production might influence the risk for LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Nowotny
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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20
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Leal MC, Dorfman VB, Gamba AF, Frangione B, Wisniewski T, Castaño EM, Sigurdsson EM, Morelli L. Plaque-Associated Overexpression of Insulin-Degrading Enzyme in the Cerebral Cortex of Aged Transgenic Tg2576 Mice With Alzheimer Pathology. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65:976-87. [PMID: 17021402 DOI: 10.1097/01.jnen.0000235853.70092.ba] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
It was proposed that insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) participates in the clearance of amyloid beta (Abeta) in the brain, and its low expression or activity may be relevant for the progression of Alzheimer disease. We performed a longitudinal study of brain level, activity, and distribution of IDE in transgenic mice (Tg2576) expressing the Swedish mutation in human Abeta precursor protein. At 16 months of age, Tg2576 showed a significant 2-fold increment in IDE protein level as compared with 4.5- and 11-month-old animals. The peak of IDE was in synchrony with the sharp accumulation of sodium dodecyl sulfate-soluble Abeta and massive Abeta deposition into plaques. At this stage, IDE appeared surrounding Abeta fibrillar deposits within glial fibrillar acidic protein-positive astrocytes, suggesting that it was locally overexpressed during the Abeta-mediated inflammation process. When primary astrocytes were exposed to fibrillar Abeta in vitro, IDE protein level increased as compared with control, and this effect was reduced by the addition of U0126, a specific inhibitor of the ERK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade. We propose that in Tg2576 mice and in contrast to its behavior in Alzheimer brains, active IDE increases with age around plaques as a component of astrocyte activation as a result of Abeta-triggered inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- María C Leal
- Fundación Instituto Leloir, Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
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21
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Ozturk A, DeKosky ST, Kamboh MI. Lack of association of 5 SNPs in the vicinity of the insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) gene with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci Lett 2006; 406:265-9. [PMID: 16914266 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.07.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2006] [Revised: 06/27/2006] [Accepted: 07/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) is a strong biological and positional candidate gene for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previously some studies have examined the role of common variation in the IDE gene with AD risk but the results have been inconsistent. In this study we examined the role of 5 SNPs that define a linkage disequilibrium (LD) block spanning 276kb around IDE. Our sample comprised up to 1012 late-onset AD (LOAD) cases and 771 older white controls. In addition, we also examined the association of these SNPs with quantitative measures of AD progression, namely age-at-onset (AAO), disease duration and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score. None of the SNPs examined in this fairly large case-control sample revealed significant association with AD risk. These SNPs also showed no significant association with AD quantitative traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayla Ozturk
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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22
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Björk BF, Katzov H, Kehoe P, Fratiglioni L, Winblad B, Prince JA, Graff C. Positive association between risk for late-onset Alzheimer disease and genetic variation in IDE. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 28:1374-80. [PMID: 16876916 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2005] [Revised: 06/12/2006] [Accepted: 06/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) is one of the principal proteases involved in the degradation of the beta-amyloid peptide, which is the major constituent of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. Previous association studies between AD and IDE have produced inconsistent results which may be indicative of a need for larger case-control series to identify what may be a relatively small effect size. Thus, we performed a large association study using four SNPs in the 276-kb haplotype block in and around IDE (IDE_7, IDE_9, IDE_14 and HHEX_23) in a previously unpublished Swedish and a UK case-control series, and combined our data with a previously reported Swedish case-control sample set from Prince et al., 2003. The combined genotype data from 1269 late-onset AD cases and 980 controls yielded a significant association to IDE_9 located in the 3'-end of the IDE gene after conservative multiple testing Bonferroni correction (p=0.005). The effect seemed to predominate in male cases. However, we did not observe a globally significant association to haplotypes generated from three "tag" SNPs. These findings indicate a role for IDE in AD, and provide models that may improve chances of further independent replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behnosh F Björk
- Karolinska Institutet, Department NVS, Division of KI-Alzheimer Disease Research Center, SE-141 57 Huddinge, Sweden
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23
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Lynch JA, George AM, Eisenhauer PB, Conn K, Gao W, Carreras I, Wells JM, McKee A, Ullman MD, Fine RE. Insulin degrading enzyme is localized predominantly at the cell surface of polarized and unpolarized human cerebrovascular endothelial cell cultures. J Neurosci Res 2006; 83:1262-70. [PMID: 16511862 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) is expressed in the brain and may play an important role there in the degradation of the amyloid beta peptide (Abeta). Our results show that cultured human cerebrovascular endothelial cells (HCECs), a primary component of the blood-brain barrier, express IDE and may respond to exposure to low levels of Abeta by upregulating its expression. When radiolabeled Abeta is introduced to the medium of cultured HCECs, it is rapidly degraded to smaller fragments. We believe that this degradation is largely the result of the action of IDE, as it can be substantially blocked by the presence of insulin in the medium, a competitive substrate of IDE. No inhibition is seen when an inhibitor of neprilysin, another protease that may degrade Abeta, is present in the medium. Our evidence suggests that the action of IDE occurs outside the cell, as inhibitors of internalization fail to affect the rate of the observed degradation. Further, our evidence suggests that degradation by IDE occurs on the plasma membrane, as much of the IDE present in HCECs was biotin-labeled by a plasma membrane impermeable reagent. This activity seems to be polarity dependent, as measurement of Abeta degradation by each surface of differentiated HCECs shows greater degradation on the basolateral (brain-facing) surface. Thus, IDE could be an important therapeutic target to decrease the amount of Abeta in the cerebrovasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Lynch
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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24
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Li Y, Grupe A, Rowland C, Nowotny P, Kauwe JSK, Smemo S, Hinrichs A, Tacey K, Toombs TA, Kwok S, Catanese J, White TJ, Maxwell TJ, Hollingworth P, Abraham R, Rubinsztein DC, Brayne C, Wavrant-De Vrièze F, Hardy J, O'Donovan M, Lovestone S, Morris JC, Thal LJ, Owen M, Williams J, Goate A. DAPK1 variants are associated with Alzheimer's disease and allele-specific expression. Hum Mol Genet 2006; 15:2560-8. [PMID: 16847012 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddl178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic factors play an important role in the etiology of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). We tested gene-centric single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on chromosome 9 and identified two SNPs in the death-associated protein kinase, DAPK1, that show significant association with LOAD. SNP rs4878104 was significantly associated with LOAD in our discovery case-control sample set (WU) and replicated in each of two initial validation case-control sample sets (P<0.05, UK1, SD). The risk-allele frequency of this SNP showed a similar direction in three other case-control sample sets. A meta-analysis of the six sample sets combined, totaling 2012 cases and 2336 controls, showed an allelic P-value of 0.0016 and an odds ratio (OR) of 0.87 (95%CI: 0.79-0.95). Minor allele homozygotes had a consistently lower risk than major allele homozygotes in the discovery and initial two replication sample sets, which remained significant in the meta-analysis of all six sample sets (OR=0.7, 95%CI: 0.58-0.85), whereas the risk for heterozygous subjects was not significantly different from that of major allele homozygotes. A second SNP, rs4877365, which is in high linkage disequilibrium with rs4878104 (r2=0.64), was also significantly associated with LOAD (meta P=0.0017 in the initial three sample sets). Furthermore, DAPK1 transcripts show differential allelic gene expression, and both rs4878104 and rs4877365 were significantly associated with DAPK1 allele-specific expression (P=0.015 to <0.0001). These data suggest that genetic variation in DAPK1 modulates susceptibility to LOAD.
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25
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Landreth G. PPARgamma agonists as new therapeutic agents for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 2006; 199:245-8. [PMID: 16733054 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2006.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2006] [Revised: 04/03/2006] [Accepted: 04/06/2006] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gary Landreth
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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26
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Mueller JC, Riemenschneider M, Schoepfer-Wendels A, Gohlke H, Konta L, Friedrich P, Illig T, Laws SM, Förstl H, Kurz A. Weak independent association signals between IDE polymorphisms, Alzheimer's disease and cognitive measures. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 28:727-34. [PMID: 16675064 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2006] [Revised: 02/21/2006] [Accepted: 03/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Functional and genetic studies suggest that insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE) may be a strong functional and positional candidate. As there is a lack of consensus in regards to the level and location of IDE association signals we aimed to clarify these discrepancies through genotyping 28 SNPs in a large case-control collective together with quantitative measures of cognitive ability (MMSE). Four SNPs (rs11187007, rs2149632_ide12, rs11187033, rs11187040) were found to be associated with AD (nominal p<0.01). Tests with MMSE scores adjusted for disease duration identified associations, with the most significant result for rs1999763 (nominal p=0.008). Similarly, different reconstructed IDE haplotypes were associated with AD and higher MMSE scores. The association signals are only borderline significant after adjustment for multiple testing, but add further evidence to previous published results on the association between IDE and AD or MMSE. A subgroup analysis indicated more prominent associations with AD in younger, and with MMSE in older patients. There may be two independent effects mediated by IDE variants, risk for AD and modification of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob C Mueller
- Neurochemistry and Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technical University Munich (TUM), Ismaningerstr. 22, 81675 München, Germany
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27
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Smemo S, Nowotny P, Hinrichs AL, Kauwe JSK, Cherny S, Erickson K, Myers AJ, Kaleem M, Marlowe L, Gibson AM, Hollingworth P, O'Donovan MC, Morris CM, Holmans P, Lovestone S, Morris JC, Thal L, Li Y, Grupe A, Hardy J, Owen MJ, Williams J, Goate A. Ubiquilin 1 polymorphisms are not associated with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 2006; 59:21-6. [PMID: 16278862 DOI: 10.1002/ana.20673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have reported evidence for linkage of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) to chromosome 9. Recently, an intronic polymorphism affecting alternative splicing of exon 8 of ubiquilin 1 (UBQLN1) was reported to be associated with LOAD. We attempted to replicate this observation by genotyping this polymorphism, rs12344615 (also known as UBQ-8i), in a large sample of 1,544 LOAD cases and 1,642 nondemented controls. We did not find any evidence that this single nucleotide polymorphism, or any of six others tested in UBQLN1, increases risk for LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Smemo
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Street, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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28
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Cellini E, Bagnoli S, Tedde A, Nacmias B, Piacentini S, Sorbi S. Insulin degrading enzyme and alpha-3 catenin polymorphisms in Italian patients with Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2006; 19:246-7. [PMID: 16327352 DOI: 10.1097/01.wad.0000189030.50826.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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29
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Goodman AB. Retinoid receptors, transporters, and metabolizers as therapeutic targets in late onset Alzheimer disease. J Cell Physiol 2006; 209:598-603. [PMID: 17001693 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin A (retinoid) is required in the adult brain to enable cognition, learning, and memory. While brain levels of retinoid diminish over the course of normal ageing, retinoid deficit is greater in late onset Alzheimer disease (LOAD) brains than in normal-aged controls. This paper reviews recent evidence supporting these statements and further suggests that genes necessary for the synthesis, transport and function of retinoid to and within the ageing brain are appropriate targets for treatment of LOAD. These genes tend to be clustered with genes that have been proposed as candidates in LOAD, are found at chromosomal regions linked to LOAD, and suggest the possibility of an overall coordinated regulation. This phenomenon is termed Chromeron and is analogous to the operon mechanism observed in prokaryotes. Suggested treatment targets are the retinoic-acid inactivating enzymes (CYP26)s, the retinol binding and transport proteins, retinol-binding protein (RBP)4 and transthyretin (TTR), and the retinoid receptors. TTR as a LOAD target is the subject of active investigation. The retinoid receptors and the retinoid-inactivating enzymes have previously been proposed as targets. This is the first report to suggest that RBP4 is an amenable treatment target in LOAD. RBP4 is elevated in type-2 diabetes and obesity, conditions associated with increased risk for LOAD. Fenretinide, a novel synthetic retinoic acid (RA) analog lowers RBP4 in glucose intolerant obese mice. The feasibility of using fenretinide either as an adjunct to present LOAD therapies, or on its own as an early prevention strategy should be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann B Goodman
- The Massachusetts Mental Health Center Academic Division of Public Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Grupe A, Li Y, Rowland C, Nowotny P, Hinrichs AL, Smemo S, Kauwe JSK, Maxwell TJ, Cherny S, Doil L, Tacey K, van Luchene R, Myers A, Wavrant-De Vrièze F, Kaleem M, Hollingworth P, Jehu L, Foy C, Archer N, Hamilton G, Holmans P, Morris CM, Catanese J, Sninsky J, White TJ, Powell J, Hardy J, O’Donovan M, Lovestone S, Jones L, Morris JC, Thal L, Owen M, Williams J, Goate A. A scan of chromosome 10 identifies a novel locus showing strong association with late-onset Alzheimer disease. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 78:78-88. [PMID: 16385451 PMCID: PMC1380225 DOI: 10.1086/498851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2005] [Accepted: 10/11/2005] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Strong evidence of linkage to late-onset Alzheimer disease (LOAD) has been observed on chromosome 10, which implicates a wide region and at least one disease-susceptibility locus. Although significant associations with several biological candidate genes on chromosome 10 have been reported, these findings have not been consistently replicated, and they remain controversial. We performed a chromosome 10-specific association study with 1,412 gene-based single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), to identify susceptibility genes for developing LOAD. The scan included SNPs in 677 of 1,270 known or predicted genes; each gene contained one or more markers, about half (48%) of which represented putative functional mutations. In general, the initial testing was performed in a white case-control sample from the St. Louis area, with 419 LOAD cases and 377 age-matched controls. Markers that showed significant association in the exploratory analysis were followed up in several other white case-control sample sets to confirm the initial association. Of the 1,397 markers tested in the exploratory sample, 69 reached significance (P < .05). Five of these markers replicated at P < .05 in the validation sample sets. One marker, rs498055, located in a gene homologous to RPS3A (LOC439999), was significantly associated with Alzheimer disease in four of six case-control series, with an allelic P value of .0001 for a meta-analysis of all six samples. One of the case-control samples with significant association to rs498055 was derived from the linkage sample (P = .0165). These results indicate that variants in the RPS3A homologue are associated with LOAD and implicate this gene, adjacent genes, or other functional variants (e.g., noncoding RNAs) in the pathogenesis of this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Grupe
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Yonghong Li
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Charles Rowland
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Petra Nowotny
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Anthony L. Hinrichs
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Scott Smemo
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - John S. K. Kauwe
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Taylor J. Maxwell
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Sara Cherny
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Lisa Doil
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Kristina Tacey
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Ryan van Luchene
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Amanda Myers
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Fabienne Wavrant-De Vrièze
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Mona Kaleem
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Paul Hollingworth
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Luke Jehu
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Catherine Foy
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Nicola Archer
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Gillian Hamilton
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Peter Holmans
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Chris M. Morris
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Joseph Catanese
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - John Sninsky
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Thomas J. White
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - John Powell
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - John Hardy
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Michael O’Donovan
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Simon Lovestone
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Lesley Jones
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - John C. Morris
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Leon Thal
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Michael Owen
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Julie Williams
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
| | - Alison Goate
- Celera Diagnostics, Alameda, CA; Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, Biology, and Genetics, Washington University, St. Louis; National Institute on Aging (NIA), Bethesda; Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit and Department of Psychological Medicine, Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff; Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London; Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; and Department of Neurosciences, University of California–San Diego, La Jolla
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