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Morris-Drake A, Kennedy P, Braga Goncalves I, Radford AN. Variation between species, populations, groups and individuals in the fitness consequences of out-group conflict. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210148. [PMID: 35369741 PMCID: PMC8977661 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Out-group conflict is rife in the natural world, occurring from primates to ants. Traditionally, research on this aspect of sociality has focused on the interactions between groups and their conspecific rivals, investigating contest function and characteristics, which group members participate and what determines who wins. In recent years, however, there has been increasing interest in the consequences of out-group conflict. In this review, we first set the scene by outlining the fitness consequences that can arise immediately to contest participants, as well as a broader range of delayed, cumulative and third-party effects of out-group conflict on survival and reproductive success. For the majority of the review, we then focus on variation in these fitness consequences of out-group conflict, describing known examples both between species and between populations, groups and individuals of the same species. Throughout, we suggest possible reasons for the variation, provide examples from a diverse array of taxa, and suggest what is needed to advance this burgeoning area of social evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Intergroup conflict across taxa'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Morris-Drake
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Patrick Kennedy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Ines Braga Goncalves
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Andrew N Radford
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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2
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Semel MA, Abernathy HN, Semel BP, Cherry MJ, Ratovoson TJC, Moore IT. Environmental and anthropogenic influences on movement and foraging in a critically endangered lemur species, Propithecus tattersalli: implications for habitat conservation planning. MOVEMENT ECOLOGY 2022; 10:20. [PMID: 35428372 PMCID: PMC9013159 DOI: 10.1186/s40462-022-00320-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wildlife conservation often focuses on establishing protected areas. However, these conservation zones are frequently established without adequate knowledge of the movement patterns of the species they are designed to protect. Understanding movement and foraging patterns of species in dynamic and diverse habitats can allow managers to develop more effective conservation plans. Threatened lemurs in Madagascar are an example where management plans and protected areas are typically created to encompass large, extant forests rather than consider the overall resource needs of the target species. METHODS To gain an understanding of golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) movement patterns, including space use and habitat selection across their range of inhabited forest types, we combined behavior data with Dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Models and Resource Selection Functions. We also examined the influence of abiotic, biotic, and anthropogenic factors on home range size, movement rates, and foraging patterns. RESULTS We found that home range size and movement rates differed between seasons, with increased core area size and movement in the rainy season. Forest type also played a role in foraging behavior with sifaka groups in the humid forest avoiding roads in both seasons, groups in the dry deciduous forest avoiding road networks in the rainy season, and groups in the moderate evergreen forest displaying no selection or avoidance of road networks while foraging. CONCLUSION Our study illustrates the importance of studying primate groups across seasons and forest types, as developing conservation plans from a single snapshot can give an inaccurate assessment of their natural behavior and resources needs of the species. More specifically, by understanding how forest type influences golden-crowned sifaka movement and foraging behavior, conservation management plans can be made to the individual forest types inhabited (dry deciduous, moderate evergreen, humid, littoral, etc.), rather than the region as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith A Semel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
| | - Heather N Abernathy
- Department of Fish & Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Brandon P Semel
- Department of Fish & Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Michael J Cherry
- Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, 78363, USA
| | - Tsioriniaina J C Ratovoson
- Département Zoologie et Biodiversité Animale, Université d'Antananarivo, 566 Analamanga, 101, Antananarivo, BP, Madagascar
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
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3
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Rudolph K, Schneider D, Fichtel C, Daniel R, Heistermann M, Kappeler PM. Drivers of gut microbiome variation within and between groups of a wild Malagasy primate. MICROBIOME 2022; 10:28. [PMID: 35139921 PMCID: PMC8827170 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-021-01223-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Various aspects of sociality can benefit individuals' health. The host social environment and its relative contributions to the host-microbiome relationship have emerged as key topics in microbial research. Yet, understanding the mechanisms that lead to structural variation in the social microbiome, the collective microbial metacommunity of an animal's social network, remains difficult since multiple processes operate simultaneously within and among animal social networks. Here, we examined the potential drivers of the convergence of the gut microbiome on multiple scales among and within seven neighbouring groups of wild Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi) - a folivorous primate of Madagascar. RESULTS Over four field seasons, we collected 519 faecal samples of 41 animals and determined gut communities via 16S and 18S rRNA gene amplicon analyses. First, we examined whether group members share more similar gut microbiota and if diet, home range overlap, or habitat similarity drive between-group variation in gut communities, accounting for seasonality. Next, we examined within-group variation in gut microbiota by examining the potential effects of social contact rates, male rank, and maternal relatedness. To explore the host intrinsic effects on the gut community structure, we investigated age, sex, faecal glucocorticoid metabolites, and female reproductive state. We found that group members share more similar gut microbiota and differ in alpha diversity, while none of the environmental predictors explained the patterns of between-group variation. Maternal relatedness played an important role in within-group microbial homogeneity and may also explain why adult group members shared the least similar gut microbiota. Also, dominant males differed in their bacterial composition from their group mates, which might be driven by rank-related differences in physiology and scent-marking behaviours. Links to sex, female reproductive state, or faecal glucocorticoid metabolites were not detected. CONCLUSIONS Environmental factors define the general set-up of population-specific gut microbiota, but intrinsic and social factors have a stronger impact on gut microbiome variation in this primate species. Video abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Rudolph
- Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
- Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Georg-August University Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
- Leibniz Science Campus "Primate Cognition", Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Dominik Schneider
- Genomic and Applied Microbiology and Göttingen Genomics Laboratory, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August University Göttingen, Grisebachstraße 8, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Fichtel
- Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz Science Campus "Primate Cognition", Göttingen, Germany
| | - Rolf Daniel
- Genomic and Applied Microbiology and Göttingen Genomics Laboratory, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August University Göttingen, Grisebachstraße 8, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Heistermann
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Peter M Kappeler
- Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Georg-August University Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
- Leibniz Science Campus "Primate Cognition", Göttingen, Germany
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Dinter K, Heistermann M, Kappeler P, Fichtel C. Life on the edge: behavioural and physiological responses of Verreaux's sifakas ( Propithecus verreauxi) to forest edges. Primate Biol 2021; 8:1-13. [PMID: 34084892 PMCID: PMC8129909 DOI: 10.5194/pb-8-1-2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Forest edges change micro-environmental conditions, thereby affecting the ecology of many forest-dwelling species. Understanding such edge effects is particularly important for Malagasy primates because many of them live in highly fragmented forests today. The aim of our study was to assess the influence of forest edge effects on activity budgets, feeding ecology, and stress hormone output (measured as faecal glucocorticoid metabolite - fGCM - levels) in wild Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), a group living, arboreal lemur. We observed five habituated groups: three living in the forest interior and two at an established forest edge. There was no difference in average daily temperatures between edge and interior habitats; however, within the edge site, the average daily temperature incrementally increased over 450 m from the forest edge towards the interior forest of the edge habitat, and the population density was lower at the edge site. Activity budgets differed between groups living in the two microhabitats, with individuals living near the edge spending more time travelling and less time feeding. Groups living near the edge also tended to have smaller home ranges and core areas than groups in the forest interior. In addition, edge groups had elevated average fGCM concentrations, and birth rates were lower for females living in the edge habitat. Combined with lower levels of fruit consumption at the edge, these results suggest that nutritional stress might be a limiting factor for Verreaux's sifakas when living near a forest edge. Hence, Verreaux's sifakas appear to be sensitive to microhabitat characteristics linked to forest edges; a result with implications for the conservation of this critically endangered lemurid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Dinter
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center,
Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Heistermann
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077
Göttingen, Germany
| | - Peter M. Kappeler
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center,
Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Sociobiology and Anthropology,
Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology,
Georg-August University, Kellnerweg 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Fichtel
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center,
Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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5
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Ramilison ML, Andriatsitohaina B, Chell C, Rakotondravony R, Radespiel U, Ramsay MS. Distribution of the critically endangered Coquerel's sifaka (
Propithecus coquereli
) across a fragmented landscape in NW Madagascar. Afr J Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.12844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Miarisoa L. Ramilison
- Faculté des Sciences, de Technologies et de l’Environnement Université de Mahajanga Mahajanga Madagascar
| | - Bertrand Andriatsitohaina
- Ecole Doctorale sur les Ecosystèmes Naturels EDEN Université de Mahajanga Mahajanga Madagascar
- Institute of Zoology University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Coral Chell
- University Centre Bishop Burton College Beverley UK
| | - Romule Rakotondravony
- Faculté des Sciences, de Technologies et de l’Environnement Université de Mahajanga Mahajanga Madagascar
| | - Ute Radespiel
- Institute of Zoology University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover Germany
| | - Malcolm S. Ramsay
- Institute of Zoology University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Hannover Germany
- Department of Anthropology University of Toronto Toronto ON Canada
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6
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Isbell LA, Bidner LR, Loftus JC, Kimuyu DM, Young TP. Absentee owners and overlapping home ranges in a territorial species. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02945-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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7
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Lewis RJ, Sandel AA, Hilty S, Barnett SE. The Collective Action Problem but Not Numerical Superiority Explains Success in Intergroup Encounters in Verreaux’s Sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi): Implications for Individual Participation and Free-Riding. INT J PRIMATOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-020-00155-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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8
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LaBarge LR, Allan AT, Berman CM, Margulis SW, Hill RA. Reactive and pre-emptive spatial cohesion in a social primate. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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9
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Yi Y, Fichtel C, Kim E, Choe JC. Impacts of Intergroup Interactions on Intragroup Behavioral Changes in Javan Gibbons (Hylobates moloch). INT J PRIMATOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-019-00116-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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10
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Waterman JO, Campbell LAD, Maréchal L, Pilot M, Majolo B. Effect of human activity on habitat selection in the endangered Barbary macaque. Anim Conserv 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. O. Waterman
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
- School of Natural Sciences & Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
| | - L. A. D. Campbell
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
- WildCRU, Recanti‐Kaplan Centre University of Oxford Tubney UK
| | - L. Maréchal
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
| | - M. Pilot
- School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
- Museum and Institute of Zoology Polish Academy of Sciences Gdańsk Poland
| | - B. Majolo
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
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11
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Rudolph K, Fichtel C, Schneider D, Heistermann M, Koch F, Daniel R, Kappeler PM. One size fits all? Relationships among group size, health, and ecology indicate a lack of an optimal group size in a wild lemur population. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2746-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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12
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Fan PL, Li YM, Stanford CB, Li F, Liu ZT, Yang KH, Liu XC. Home range variation of two different-sized groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys ( Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia, China: implications for feeding competition. Zool Res 2019; 40:121-128. [PMID: 29955030 PMCID: PMC6378561 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2018.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge on the home range size of a species or population is important for understanding its behavioral and social ecology and improving the effectiveness of conservation strategies. We studied the home range size of two different-sized groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia, China. The larger group (236 individuals) had a home range of 22.5 km2 from September 2007 to July 2008, whereas the smaller group (62 individuals) occupied a home range of 12.4 km2 from November 2008 to July 2009. Both groups exhibited considerable seasonal variation in their home range size, which was likely due to seasonal changes in food availability and distribution. The home range in any given season (winter, spring, summer, or winter+spring+summer) of the larger group was larger than that of the smaller group. As the two groups were studied in the same area, with the confounding effects of food availability thus minimized, the positive relationship between home range size and group size suggested that scramble feeding competition increased within the larger group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng-Lai Fan
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.,Institute of Ecology, College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yi-Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Craig B Stanford
- Departments of Biological Sciences and Anthropology, Jane Goodall Research Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
| | - Fang Li
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Ze-Tian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Kai-Hua Yang
- Shennongjia National Park, Shennongjia Hubei 442421, China
| | - Xue-Cong Liu
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; E-mail:
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13
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Fruth B, Hohmann G. Food Sharing across Borders : First Observation of Intercommunity Meat Sharing by Bonobos at LuiKotale, DRC. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2018; 29:91-103. [PMID: 29619667 PMCID: PMC5942352 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-018-9311-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary models consider hunting and food sharing to be milestones that paved the way from primate to human societies. Because fossil evidence is scarce, hominoid primates serve as referential models to assess our common ancestors' capacity in terms of communal use of resources, food sharing, and other forms of cooperation. Whereas chimpanzees form male-male bonds exhibiting resource-defense polygyny with intolerance and aggression toward nonresidents, bonobos form male-female and female-female bonds resulting in relaxed relations with neighboring groups. Here we report the first known case of meat sharing between members of two bonobo communities, revealing a new dimension of social tolerance in this species. This observation testifies to the behavioral plasticity that exists in the two Pan species and contributes to scenarios concerning the traits of the last common ancestor of Pan and Homo. It also contributes to the discussion of physiological triggers of in-group/out-group behavior and allows reconsideration of the emergence of social norms in prehuman societies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Fruth
- Faculty of Science, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK. .,Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Koningin Astridplein 20-26, B-2018, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Gottfried Hohmann
- Department of Primatology, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103, Leipzig, Germany
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14
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Cascading competition: the seasonal strength of scramble influences between-group contest in a folivorous primate. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2418-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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15
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Springer A, Kappeler PM, Nunn CL. Dynamic vs. static social networks in models of parasite transmission: predicting Cryptosporidium spread in wild lemurs. J Anim Ecol 2017; 86:419-433. [PMID: 27973681 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Social networks provide an established tool to implement heterogeneous contact structures in epidemiological models. Dynamic temporal changes in contact structure and ranging behaviour of wildlife may impact disease dynamics. A consensus has yet to emerge, however, concerning the conditions in which network dynamics impact model outcomes, as compared to static approximations that average contact rates over longer time periods. Furthermore, as many pathogens can be transmitted both environmentally and via close contact, it is important to investigate the relative influence of both transmission routes in real-world populations. Here, we use empirically derived networks from a population of wild primates, Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), and simulated networks to investigate pathogen spread in dynamic vs. static social networks. First, we constructed a susceptible-exposed-infected-recovered model of Cryptosporidium spread in wild Verreaux's sifakas. We incorporated social and environmental transmission routes and parameterized the model for two different climatic seasons. Second, we used simulated networks and greater variation in epidemiological parameters to investigate the conditions in which dynamic networks produce larger outbreak sizes than static networks. We found that average outbreak size of Cryptosporidium infections in sifakas was larger when the disease was introduced in the dry season than in the wet season, driven by an increase in home range overlap towards the end of the dry season. Regardless of season, dynamic networks always produced larger average outbreak sizes than static networks. Larger outbreaks in dynamic models based on simulated networks occurred especially when the probability of transmission and recovery were low. Variation in tie strength in the dynamic networks also had a major impact on outbreak size, while network modularity had a weaker influence than epidemiological parameters that determine transmission and recovery. Our study adds to emerging evidence that dynamic networks can change predictions of disease dynamics, especially if the disease shows low transmissibility and a long infectious period, and when environmental conditions lead to enhanced between-group contact after an infectious agent has been introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Springer
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Peter M Kappeler
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany.,Department of Sociobiology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Charles L Nunn
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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16
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The role of the residence-effect on the outcome of intergroup encounters in Verreaux's sifakas. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28457. [PMID: 27328940 PMCID: PMC4916469 DOI: 10.1038/srep28457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Intergroup competition has an important impact on the survival and fitness of individuals in group-living species. However, factors influencing the probability of winning an encounter are not fully understood. We studied the influence of numerical advantage and location of the encounter on the chances of winning in eight neighboring groups of Verreaux’s sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), in Kirindy Forest, western Madagascar. Intergroup encounters were inferred from spatial data collected via GPS loggers over a period of two years. Location, i.e., the proximity to the respective core area, rather than the numerical advantage of a group in a given encounter, influenced the probability of winning. Accordingly, the high value that resident groups attribute to exclusive and intensively used areas increased their motivation in defending these locations against intruders. Moreover, losers used the encounter area less often than winners within a month after the encounter, suggesting that losing also entails long-term costs. Thus, our results suggest that in gregarious animals the particular circumstances of each encounter, such as the location, can outweigh group characteristics and predict the chances of winning an intergroup encounter.
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17
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Koch F, Signer J, Kappeler PM, Fichtel C. Intergroup encounters in Verreaux's sifakas ( Propithecus verreauxi): who fights and why? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016; 70:797-808. [PMID: 27194822 PMCID: PMC4841837 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2105-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Individuals living in groups have to achieve collective action for successful territorial defense. Because conflicts between neighboring groups always involve risks and costs, individuals must base their decision to participate in a given conflict on an evaluation of the trade-off between potential costs and benefits. Since group members may differ in motivation to engage in group encounters, they exhibit different levels of participation in conflicts. In this study, we investigated factors influencing participation in intergroup encounters in Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), a group-living primate from Madagascar. Over a period of 12 months, we studied eight adjacent sifaka groups in Kirindy Forest. We observed 71 encounters between known neighboring groups in which adult females and males participated equally as often. No individual participated in every encounter, and non-participation occurred more often in larger groups. Females participated less often in encounters when they had dependent infants, presumably to reduce the risk of infanticide. Male participation was influenced by social status: dominant males participated in most encounters, whereas males with fewer opportunities to reproduce participated less often, hence male participation is influenced by the incentive of maintaining access to females. The number of actively participating individuals in the opponent group positively influenced the participation in both sexes. Thus, sifakas seem to decide joining a given encounter opportunistically, most likely based on a combination of individual incentives and the actual circumstance of each encounter, suggesting that the complexity in intergroup relationships appears to be the product of decisions made by each individual group member. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Cooperation among group-living animals is often challenged by collective action problems resulting from individual differences in interests in contributing to collective behaviors. Intergroup encounters involve distinguished costs and benefits for each individual despite being in the same social group. Therefore, encounters between groups offer a good opportunity to investigate individual participation in collective action. In this study, we investigate the influence of different incentives on individual participation in intergroup encounters in wild Malagasy primate, Verreaux's sifakas. We propose a novel approach that takes into account the variable circumstances of each conflict, such as the number of individuals fighting in both groups as a predictor for participation. We believe that our study not only provides novel data on wild sifakas, but it also offers new perspectives for the interpretation of intergroup relationships in other taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávia Koch
- />Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Johannes Signer
- />Department of Wildlife Science, University of Göttingen, Büsgenweg 3, Göttingen, 37077 Germany
| | - Peter M. Kappeler
- />Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
- />Department of Sociobiology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Claudia Fichtel
- />Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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18
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Effects of group size and contest location on the outcome and intensity of intergroup contests in wild blue monkeys. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Social structure and Escherichia coli sharing in a group-living wild primate, Verreaux's sifaka. BMC Ecol 2016; 16:6. [PMID: 26868261 PMCID: PMC4751723 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-016-0059-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epidemiological models often use information on host social contacts to predict the potential impact of infectious diseases on host populations and the efficiency of control measures. It can be difficult, however, to determine whether social contacts are actually meaningful predictors of transmission. We investigated the role of host social structure in the transmission of Escherichia coli in a wild population of primates, Verreaux’s sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi). Using multilocus sequence typing (MLST), we compared genetic similarities between E. coli isolates from different individuals and groups to infer transmission pathways. Results Correlation of social and transmission networks revealed that membership to the same group significantly predicted sharing of E. coli MLST sequence types (ST). Intergroup encounter rate and a measure of space-use sharing provided equally potent explanations for type sharing between social groups when closely related STs were taken into account, whereas animal age, sex and dispersal history had no influence. No antibiotic resistance was found, suggesting low rates of E. coli spillover from humans into this arboreal species. Conclusions We show that patterns of E. coli transmission reflect the social structure of this group-living lemur species. We discuss our results in the light of the species’ ecology and propose scent-marking, a type of social contact not considered in previous epidemiological studies, as a likely route of transmission between groups. However, further studies are needed to explicitly test this hypothesis and to further elucidate the relative roles of direct contact and environmental transmission in pathogen transfer. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12898-016-0059-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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COMPARISON OF THREE SHORT-TERM IMMOBILIZATION REGIMES IN WILD VERREAUX'S SIFAKAS (PROPITHECUS VERREAUXI): KETAMINE-XYLAZINE, KETAMINE-XYLAZINE-ATROPINE, AND TILETAMINE-ZOLAZEPAM. J Zoo Wildl Med 2015; 46:482-90. [PMID: 26352951 DOI: 10.1638/2014-0154.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although research on lemurid primates in Madagascar has been ongoing for several decades, reports on different drug regimes to immobilize wild lemurs are limited. This study compares the efficacy, reliability, and side effects of ketamine-xylazine, ketamine-xylazine-atropine, and tiletamine-zolazepam immobilization in wild Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi). In the course of a long-term study in Kirindy Forest, western Madagascar, eight animals each received a mixture of ketamine (5.32±1.71 mg/kg) and xylazine (0.56±0.19 mg/kg) (KX; 7 males, 1 female) and ketamine (6.58±1.36 mg/kg), xylazine (1.28±0.28 mg/kg), and atropine (0.013±0.003 mg/kg) (KXA; 5 males, 3 females), respectively, and 14 individuals received tiletamine-zolazepam (7.73±1.37 mg/kg) (TZ; 9 males, 5 females). Induction was smooth in all protocols, but showed considerable variation in duration when animals had received KXA. Immobilization as well as recovery lasted significantly longer with TZ than with KX (P<0.05). Occurrence of side effects was not significantly different between the protocols; however, excessive salivation, involuntary muscular contractions, and vocalization only occurred in animals immobilized with TZ. Heart rate measurement at 10 min after onset of complete immobilization yielded significantly higher values if the animals had been immobilized with TZ compared to KX (P<0.05). Heart rate decreased from the first to the second measurement for the KX- and KXA-immobilized animals, whereas immobilization with TZ resulted in an increase in heart rate. The results suggest that KX produces good, but short, immobilization in Verreaux's sifakas at approximately 5 mg/kg ketamine and 0.5 mg/kg xylazine and a smoother and shorter recovery phase than 5 to 10 mg/kg TZ, whereas adding atropine to KX did not provide any benefits.
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Leimberger KG, Lewis RJ. Patterns of male dispersal in Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) at Kirindy Mitea National Park. Am J Primatol 2015; 79. [PMID: 26255992 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Males of many group-living mammals emigrate from their social groups to improve mating opportunities. To help mitigate the social and locational costs of dispersal and to increase reproductive benefits, they may immigrate seasonally, immigrate alongside a partner, and/or replace the alpha male (versus entering a group as a subordinate). Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) are highly seasonally breeding primates characterized by male-biased dispersal. We hypothesized that (i) males time immigrations to pursue immediate mating opportunities, (ii) entrances with partners more often result in alpha male replacement, and (iii) male competitive ability affects immigration strategy and alpha male tenure length. To assess these proximate aspects of male dispersal, we examined 7 years of demographic, morphological, and behavioral data for five social groups of Verreaux's sifaka in the Kirindy Mitea National Park in western Madagascar. Contrary to expectations and studies of sifaka dispersal in other populations, we detected no strong seasonal pattern in immigrations. Immigrations occurred individually and with partners, and a trend existed for partners to increase the likelihood of replacing an alpha male. Pronounced activity of the sternal scent gland (a proxy for testosterone and prior dominance status), but not body mass, canine size, or potential correlates of leaping ability, significantly influenced immigration strategy. The absence of a seasonal immigration pattern suggests that fluid group boundaries may allow mating success without establishment in a social group before the mating season. Our results also suggest that male immigration strategies are affected by age, prior dominance status, and testosterone levels but not morphological indicators of individual competitive ability. Coalitions may be used to improve competitive ability. Finally, differences in seasonal immigration patterns and length of alpha male vacancies observed at Kirindy Mitea may be due to the relatively low population density. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22455, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara G Leimberger
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas
| | - Rebecca J Lewis
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas
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Pasquaretta C, Busia L, Ferrari C, Bogliani G, Reale D, von Hardenberg A. Helpers influence on territory use and maintenance in Alpine marmot groups. BEHAVIOUR 2015. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In social mammals, territory size and shape vary according to the number and strength of neighbour individuals competing for resources. Two main theories have been proposed to explain this variability: the Group Augmentation (GA) and the realized Resource Holding Potential (rRHP) hypotheses. The first states that the outcome of the interactions among groups depends on the total number of individuals in the group while the second states that only the number of animals directly involved in intergroup competition determines this outcome. We collected data on space use of individually tagged Alpine marmots (Marmota marmota), a cooperative breeding species that overlaps part of its territory with neighbouring groups. In accordance with the rRHP hypothesis, we found that groups having higher proportion of helpers, rather than higher total number of individuals, had lower percentage of the territory overlapping with neighbouring groups and a larger area available for individual exclusive use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Pasquaretta
- Institut pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, Strasbourg cedex 2, France
- Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Via A. Ferrata 9, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Laura Busia
- Department of Neuroethology, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Mexico
| | - Caterina Ferrari
- Département des Sciences Biologiques Université du Québec à Montréal, Case Postale 8888, succursale centre-ville Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8
| | - Giuseppe Bogliani
- Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Via A. Ferrata 9, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Denis Reale
- Département des Sciences Biologiques Université du Québec à Montréal, Case Postale 8888, succursale centre-ville Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3P8
| | - Achaz von Hardenberg
- Alpine Wildlife Research Centre, Gran Paradiso National Park Degioz 11, 11010 Valsavarenche (Ao), Italy
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Wartmann FM, Juárez CP, Fernandez-Duque E. Size, Site Fidelity, and Overlap of Home Ranges and Core Areas in the Socially Monogamous Owl Monkey (Aotus azarae) of Northern Argentina. INT J PRIMATOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-014-9771-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Aye-aye population genomic analyses highlight an important center of endemism in northern Madagascar. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:5823-8. [PMID: 23530231 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1211990110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
We performed a population genomics study of the aye-aye, a highly specialized nocturnal lemur from Madagascar. Aye-ayes have low population densities and extensive range requirements that could make this flagship species particularly susceptible to extinction. Therefore, knowledge of genetic diversity and differentiation among aye-aye populations is critical for conservation planning. Such information may also advance our general understanding of Malagasy biogeography, as aye-ayes have the largest species distribution of any lemur. We generated and analyzed whole-genome sequence data for 12 aye-ayes from three regions of Madagascar (North, West, and East). We found that the North population is genetically distinct, with strong differentiation from other aye-ayes over relatively short geographic distances. For comparison, the average FST value between the North and East aye-aye populations--separated by only 248 km--is over 2.1-times greater than that observed between human Africans and Europeans. This finding is consistent with prior watershed- and climate-based hypotheses of a center of endemism in northern Madagascar. Taken together, these results suggest a strong and long-term biogeographical barrier to gene flow. Thus, the specific attention that should be directed toward preserving large, contiguous aye-aye habitats in northern Madagascar may also benefit the conservation of other distinct taxonomic units. To help facilitate future ecological- and conservation-motivated population genomic analyses by noncomputational biologists, the analytical toolkit used in this study is available on the Galaxy Web site.
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Identifying hotspots of chimpanzee group activity from transect surveys in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467411000423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Abstract:Locating activity hotspots – areas of higher density, more intense use, or distinct social units – is a prerequisite for answering many questions in animal ecology. However, for many species, carrying out such research from direct observations in tropical habitat is time-consuming and unrealistic for non-habituated animals. This study aimed to locate chimpanzee home ranges from transect nest counts. For validation purposes, 233 line transects were sampled within the home ranges of four habituated social groups of chimpanzees in Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. In total, 373 km of transects were surveyed over 188 days and 683 nests of chimpanzee were recorded. First, we characterized heterogeneity of nest distribution patterns, including variation in density and group size within the area. Second, we used scan statistics, a likelihood-based cluster technique to locate chimpanzee social groups and compared them with the known home range boundaries. Chimpanzee nest distribution was characterized by a positive density and group-size gradient away from the range periphery. Furthermore, nest distribution clusters corresponding to the four groups could be successfully identified, although additional clusters for, for example, low-density areas between social groups seem to be an unavoidable by-product. The approach taken can be extended to a wide spectrum of data stemming from direct observations, camera traps, acoustic or genetic sampling to derive information about structure and patchiness of wild animal populations.
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Abstract
Home range studies are essential for understanding an animal's behavioral ecology and for making wildlife conservation efficient. The home range of a group of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti Milne-Edwards, 1897) was estimated using a global positioning system collar from December 2003 to October 2004 in northern Yunnan Province, China. To measure the ranging area of the study group 1291 animal locations were fixed. Based on the 100% minimum convex polygon method, the home range size was approximately 32.8 km(2) ; based on the grid-cell method it was approximately 17.8 km(2) using a 250-m grid and 23.3 km(2) using a 500-m grid. We assessed seasonal changes in the home range of this monkey population and found a different ranging pattern of from earlier studies. Daily range size was calculated as 4.80 ± 5.81 ha (mean ± standard deviation), with a range of 45.66 ha (0.01-45.67 ha).
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoping Ren
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaThe Nature Conservancy, China Program, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaThe Nature Conservancy, China Program, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Yongcheng Long
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaThe Nature Conservancy, China Program, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ruidong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaThe Nature Conservancy, China Program, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Fuwen Wei
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, ChinaThe Nature Conservancy, China Program, Kunming, Yunnan, China
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Antonacci D, Norscia I, Palagi E. Stranger to familiar: wild strepsirhines manage xenophobia by playing. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13218. [PMID: 20949052 PMCID: PMC2951354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2010] [Accepted: 09/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The power of play in limiting xenophobia is a well-known phenomenon in humans. Yet, the evidence in social animals remains meager. Here, we aim to determine whether play promotes social tolerance toward strangers in one of the most basal group of primates, the strepsirhines. We observed two groups of wild lemurs (Propithecus verreauxi, Verreaux's sifaka) during the mating season. Data were also collected on nine visiting, outgroup males. We compared the distribution of play, grooming, and aggressive interactions across three conditions: OUT (resident/outgroup interactions), IN (resident/resident interactions in presence of outgroups) and BL-IN (baseline of resident/resident interactions in absence of outgroups). Play frequency between males was higher in OUT than in IN and BL-IN conditions; whereas, grooming was more frequent in IN than in OUT and BL-IN conditions. Aggression rates between resident and outgroup males were significantly higher than those between residents. However, aggressions between resident and outgroup males significantly decreased after the first play session and became comparable with resident-resident aggression levels. The presence of strangers in a well-established group implies the onset of novel social circumstances, which sifaka males cope with by two different tactics: grooming with ingroup males and playing with outgroup ones. The grooming peak, concurrently with the visit of outgroups, probably represents a social shield adopted by resident males to make their pre-existing affiliation more evident to the stranger “audience”. Being mostly restricted to unfamiliar males, adult play in sifaka appears to have a role in managing new social situations more than in maintaining old relationships. In particular, our results indicate not only that play is the interface between strangers but also that it has a specific function in reducing xenophobia. In conclusion, play appears to be an ice-breaker mechanism in the critical process that “upgrades” an individual from stranger to familiar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Antonacci
- Centro Interdipartimentale Museo di Storia Naturale e del Territorio, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Ivan Norscia
- Centro Interdipartimentale Museo di Storia Naturale e del Territorio, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Palagi
- Centro Interdipartimentale Museo di Storia Naturale e del Territorio, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- Unit of Cognitive Primatology and Primate Center, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, The National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
- * E-mail:
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Pyritz L, Fichtel C, Kappeler P. Conceptual and methodological issues in the comparative study of collective group movements. Behav Processes 2010; 84:681-4. [PMID: 20211229 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2010.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In our commentary, we highlight several conceptual and methodological problems that have hampered broader integration of studies of collective group movements. Specifically, we argue that studies of captive animals should only be used to elucidate behavioural mechanisms. Moreover, the diversity of physical environments in which group movements occur as well as the social diversity of groups deserve more consideration in integrative studies. Furthermore, tests of predictions based on modelling studies are often hampered by the fact that models include variables that are difficult or impossible to measure in real animals. We also advocate the use of an empirical, rather than subjective establishment of operational definitions of group movements and the associated individual roles. Finally, we emphasize the utility of controlled experiments in the study of collective decision-making and group movements and encourage their wider application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lennart Pyritz
- Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, CRC Evolution of Social Behavior, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 4, Göttingen, Germany
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Kappeler PM, Mass V, Port M. Even adult sex ratios in lemurs: Potential costs and benefits of subordinate males in Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) in the Kirindy Forest CFPF, Madagascar. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2010; 140:487-97. [PMID: 19425098 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Optimal group size and composition are determined by both the costs and benefits of group living for the group's members. Verreaux's sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), a diurnal lemur, form multimale multifemale groups with the tendency toward even adult sex ratios despite a small average number of females per group. The unexpected presence of multiple adult males may be explained by tolerance of other group members if subordinate males provide benefits to the group that outweigh the costs associated with their presence. Results based on both demographic data collected over a 13-year period and behavioral observations suggest that subordinate males provide no benefits in terms of infant survival and defense against group takeover by outside males. Although groups with more males are more likely to win intergroup encounters, subordinate males do not participate in these encounters more often than expected. Subordinate males are not costly to other group members in terms of direct intragroup feeding competition, but aggression rates between dominant and immigrated subordinate males increase in the mating season. Even though subordinate males provide very few benefits to the group, they are not very costly either and thus may be tolerated by resident females and dominant males. This tolerance may help to partially explain the tendency towards their unusual adult sex ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Kappeler
- Department of Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, German Primate Center, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Mass V, Heistermann M, Kappeler PM. Mate-Guarding as a Male Reproductive Tactic in Propithecus verreauxi. INT J PRIMATOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-009-9345-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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