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Quantifying Acute Behavioral Reactions of Bali Mynas (Leucopsar rothschildi) to Environmental and Progressively Challenging Enrichment. JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/jzbg4010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals use specific behaviors and skills to overcome challenges and access resources. Environmental enrichment is provided to animals in human care to both promote species-appropriate behaviors and reduce undesired behaviors. Feather pecking in birds is an undesired behavior without a clear cause. The Saint Louis Zoo houses three pairs of young Bali mynas (Leucopsar rothschildi) who pluck neck feathers from conspecifics. To reduce this behavior, animal care staff presented the birds with seven enrichment items from four categories, presenting each item twice. The enrichment included a modifiable, progressively challenging bamboo tube device at multiple levels of difficulty. While plucking was not affected by any enrichment item, we observed significant increases in locomotion and decreases in autopreening, allogrooming, and head bobbing. Leafy greens produced the greatest changes when compared to other enrichment types. Overall engagement with the progressively challenging enrichment increased with the change from the first to the second level of difficulty, and interaction with the device was highest for the third and most difficult version. These increases suggest that no habituation to the progressively challenging device occurred, while a possible neophobic effect declined with multiple uses and increased familiarity.
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Laméris DW, Verspeek J, Salas M, Staes N, Torfs JRR, Eens M, Stevens JMG. Evaluating Self-Directed Behaviours and Their Association with Emotional Arousal across Two Cognitive Tasks in Bonobos ( Pan paniscus). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:3002. [PMID: 36359126 PMCID: PMC9656221 DOI: 10.3390/ani12213002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 09/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Self-directed behaviours (SDBs) are widely used as markers of emotional arousal in primates, and are commonly linked to negative arousal, or are used as indicators of stress or poor welfare. However, recent studies suggest that not all SDBs have the same function. Moreover, lateralisation in the production of these behaviours has been suggested to be associated with emotional processing. Hence, a better understanding of the production and the asymmetry of these displacement behaviours is needed in a wider range of species in order to confirm their reliability as indicators of emotional arousal. In the current study, we experimentally evaluated the production and asymmetry of SDBs in zoo-housed bonobos during two cognitive touchscreen tasks. Overall, nose wipes were most commonly observed, followed by gentle self-scratches, and rough self-scratches. The rates of nose wipes and rough self-scratches increased with incorrect responses, suggesting that these behaviours indicate arousal and possibly frustration. Rough self-scratching was additionally more directed towards the left hemispace after incorrect responses. In contrast, gentle self-scratching increased after correct responses in one study, possibly linking it with positive arousal. We also tested if left-handed bonobos showed greater behavioural reactivity towards incorrect responses, but found no evidence to confirm this hypothesis. Our results shed light on potential different mechanisms behind separate SDBs. We therefore provide nuance to the use of SDBs as indicator of emotional arousal in bonobos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daan W. Laméris
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jonas Verspeek
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marina Salas
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nicky Staes
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jonas R. R. Torfs
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Antwerp ZOO Centre for Research & Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jeroen M. G. Stevens
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- SALTO, Agro- and Biotechnology, Odisee University College, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
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Padrell M, Amici F, Córdoba MP, Llorente M. Cognitive enrichment in a social setting: assessing the use of a novel food maze in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees. Primates 2022; 63:509-524. [PMID: 35849205 PMCID: PMC9463267 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-022-00996-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Foraging devices are effective enrichment tools for non-human primates, as they provide both cognitive and manipulative stimulation that may enhance these animals’ welfare. We assessed the behavioral effects of a novel tool-based enrichment on 14 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed at Fundació Mona (Girona, Spain). The device consisted of a vertical maze filled with food rewards, which chimpanzees could extract by using tools. We conducted behavioral observations in two conditions over an approximately 2.5-month period: when the food maze was loaded (12 enrichment days), and when it was empty (12 baseline days). Data were collected using 2-min scan sampling and untimed-event focal sampling during two daily sessions of 80 min each. We expected that the chimpanzees’ interest in the enrichment would decrease over time, but that its use would be linked to an increase in the occurrence of species-typical behaviors, a reduction in negative indicators of welfare, and changes in social behaviors. We found that participation widely varied among subjects, being higher in females and decreasing through time. Furthermore, participation was linked to an increase in tool use and a decrease in inactivity, but also to an increase in aggression-related behaviors. In contrast, participation had no effect on the occurrence of abnormal behaviors, social proximity or affiliation-related behaviors. Finally, we detected an increase in self-directed behaviors only when subjects actively interacted with the device. We conclude that, in future studies, these types of devices should be evaluated for longer periods of time and more attention should be paid to individuals’ preferences and abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Padrell
- Departament de Psicologia, Facultat d'Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, Plaça Sant Domènech 9, 17004, Girona, Spain. .,Research Department, Fundació Mona, 17457, Girona, Spain.
| | - Federica Amici
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,Faculty of Life Sciences, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Miquel Llorente
- Departament de Psicologia, Facultat d'Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, Plaça Sant Domènech 9, 17004, Girona, Spain. .,Institut de Recerca i Estudis en Primatologia, IPRIM, 17246, Santa Cristina d'Aro, Spain.
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Jordan EJ, Völter CJ, Seed AM. Do capuchin monkeys ( Sapajus apella) use exploration to form intuitions about physical properties? Cogn Neuropsychol 2022; 38:531-543. [PMID: 35732407 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2022.2088273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Humans' flexible innovation relies on our capacity to accurately predict objects' behaviour. These predictions may originate from a "physics-engine" in the brain which simulates our environment. To explore the evolutionary origins of intuitive physics, we investigate whether capuchin monkeys' object exploration supports learning. Two capuchin groups experienced exploration sessions involving multiple copies of two objects, one object was easily opened (functional), the other was not (non-functional). We used two within-subject conditions (enrichment-then-test, and test-only) with two object sets per group. Monkeys then underwent individual test sessions where the objects contained rewards, and they choose one to attempt to open. The monkeys spontaneously explored, performing actions which yielded functional information. At test, both groups chose functional objects above chance. While high performance of the test-only group precluded us from establishing learning during exploration, this study reveals the promise of harnessing primates' natural exploratory tendencies to understand how they see the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Jade Jordan
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Christoph J Völter
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Amanda M Seed
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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Bridging pure cognitive research and cognitive enrichment. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:1671-1678. [PMID: 35652984 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01636-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive enrichment is a growing subset of environmental enrichment for captive animals. However, it has been difficult for practitioners to design, implement, and evaluate relevant and appropriate cognitive challenges. Even though pure comparative cognition researchers focus on fundamental evolutionary questions, their knowledge and expertise can also shape the future of cognitive enrichment. This paper describes the motive, means, and opportunity to do so. Taxon-specific summaries of animal cognition (including inter-individual variation in skill and effects of motivation), and experimental designs (including the task itself, training, and reward) need to be accessible to practitioners in applied settings, such as farms, zoos, and sanctuaries. Furthermore, I invite pure researchers to directly evaluate their cognitive research program as enrichment and thus bridge the disciplines of animal cognition and welfare.
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Matrai E, Kwok ST, Boos M, Pogány Á. Testing use of the first multi-partner cognitive enrichment devices by a group of male bottlenose dolphins. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:961-973. [PMID: 35146593 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01605-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Alliance formation plays a crucial part in male dolphins' lives. These partnerships may last for decades or even for a lifetime; thus, partner choice and the maintenance of these relationships are both considered key components of alliance formation. In our previous investigations, pairs of adult male dolphins showed a high success rate in cooperative manipulation of a cognitive enrichment device. Here, we introduced two novel cognitive enrichment devices to the group of five dolphins, facilitating simultaneous actions for not only pairs, but for three or even four dolphins. The devices were made of PVC tubes, fittings and caps equipped with rope handles, creating a three-way (T-shape) and a four-way (TT-shape) device. The devices were filled with fish and ice and were designed to be opened by simultaneous pull of the handles. Both devices were tested in 12 trials (each lasted for 15 min), separately. Only one of the caps could be opened, the others were affixed with the position of the openable cap counter-balanced over the trials. Although the dolphins received no training regarding the manipulation of the devices, they were successful in cooperatively opening the three-way devices in 10/12 of trials (70% by two and 30% by three dolphins) and the four-way devices also in 10/12 trials (50% by two, 40% by three and 10% by four dolphins). The dolphins interacted with the devices during the entire testing time, and this was mostly spent in cooperative play (77% and 56% of the test duration with the three-way and four-way device, respectively). The majority of the cooperative play was observed between one particular pair of dolphins that was temporarily associated with a third or sometimes even with a fourth dolphin. These findings demonstrate the first successful use of multi-partner cooperative enrichment devices, providing information on the social organization of a male dolphin group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Matrai
- Research Department, Ocean Park, Hong Kong, 180 Wong Chuk Hang Road, Aberdeen, Hong Kong.
- Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, Budapest, 1117, Hungary.
| | - Shaw Ting Kwok
- Research Department, Ocean Park, Hong Kong, 180 Wong Chuk Hang Road, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
| | - Michael Boos
- Research Department, Ocean Park, Hong Kong, 180 Wong Chuk Hang Road, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
| | - Ákos Pogány
- Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
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Environmental Enrichment Factors Associated with the Activity Level of Bottlenose Dolphins under Professional Care. JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jzbg3010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental enrichment can be used to improve the welfare of dolphins in zoos and aquariums. Bottlenose dolphins under professional care are typically provided with a range of enrichment that has a variety of features and levels of complexity at various frequencies. In the present study, a subset of data from a larger study entitled “Towards understanding the welfare of cetaceans in zoos and aquariums” (colloquially called the Cetacean Welfare Study) was used to examine the relationship between activity level and enrichment buoyancy as well as enrichment provisioning schedules. Survey data were collected from accredited zoos and aquariums related to the types of enrichment provided to the dolphins and the frequency and duration they were supplied. Non-invasive bio-logging devices were used to record the dolphin kinematics one day per week over the course of two five-week data collection periods. Activity level related positively with the total duration of time non-stationary enrichment was provided. In addition, providing a larger number of enrichment types each between 26% and 50% of the days in a month (i.e., rotating many different types of enrichment across days on a moderate schedule) was positively related to activity level. Activity level was negatively related to the number of times sinking enrichment was provided. Understanding how the temporal schedule and features of various types of enrichment are related to activity levels will aid in developing progressively more effective enrichment programs.
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8
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Padrell M, Amici F, Córdoba MP, Giberga A, Broekman A, Almagro S, Llorente M. Artificial Termite-Fishing Tasks as Enrichment for Sanctuary-Housed Chimpanzees: Behavioral Effects and Impact on Welfare. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11102941. [PMID: 34679962 PMCID: PMC8532803 DOI: 10.3390/ani11102941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The welfare of captive animals is nowadays a topic of major concern. In order to express their natural behavioral repertoires, however, animals require complex environments and stimuli which are difficult to reproduce in captivity. To overcome this, environmental enrichment is considered one of the most successful tools to increase behavioral opportunities and enhance animal welfare. In this study, we explored whether providing an artificial termite-fishing task, and whether participation in this task, predicted changes in the solitary and social behavior of sanctuary-housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We compared chimpanzee behavior when the enrichment was presented to different periods without enrichment. We found that the presence of the enrichment predicted an increase in tool use and feeding behavior and a decrease in inactivity, especially for those chimpanzees with higher participation. However, we did not detect significant changes in abnormal or self-directed behaviors. Furthermore, we found no variation in affiliation- or aggression-related behaviors, but social proximity increased in chimpanzees that participated more. Our results support previous studies demonstrating that artificial termite-fishing promotes species-typical behaviors in captive chimpanzees with no major effects on social activities. Abstract Artificial termite-fishing tasks are a common enrichment for captive great apes, promoting species-typical behaviors. Nonetheless, whether these activities are linked to changes in other behaviors and whether these changes persist over time has seldom been investigated. We assessed whether the use of an artificial termite-fishing task was linked to changes in the solitary behavior and social dynamics in two groups of sanctuary-housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Specifically, we compared chimpanzee behavior during eight enrichment sessions distributed over a two-month period, with similar periods before and after the introduction of the enrichment. Data were collected from combined interval and continuous sampling methods and were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. We found that participation increased across sessions and that both enrichment and participation predicted an increase in tool use and feeding and a decrease in inactivity, which were all maintained throughout the sessions. Furthermore, participation was positively associated with social proximity, revealing a gathering effect of the task. However, neither enrichment nor participation were linked to changes in abnormal, self-directed, affiliation-related or aggression-related behaviors. Overall, our results support the hypothesis that artificial termite-fishing is a suitable enrichment for captive chimpanzees, maintaining the subjects’ interest and promoting species-typical behaviors, with no negative effects on social activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Padrell
- Departament de Psicologia, Facultat d’Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, 17004 Girona, Spain;
- Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, 17457 Riudellots de la Selva, Spain;
- Correspondence:
| | - Federica Amici
- Department of Human Behavior, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Ecology and Culture, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany;
- Faculty of Life Science, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstrasse 33, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maria Pau Córdoba
- Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, 17457 Riudellots de la Selva, Spain;
| | - Albert Giberga
- Fundació UdG, Innovació i Formació, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Pic de Peguera 11, 17003 Girona, Spain; (A.G.); (A.B.); (S.A.)
| | - Antonio Broekman
- Fundació UdG, Innovació i Formació, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Pic de Peguera 11, 17003 Girona, Spain; (A.G.); (A.B.); (S.A.)
| | - Susana Almagro
- Fundació UdG, Innovació i Formació, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Pic de Peguera 11, 17003 Girona, Spain; (A.G.); (A.B.); (S.A.)
| | - Miquel Llorente
- Departament de Psicologia, Facultat d’Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, 17004 Girona, Spain;
- Fundació UdG, Innovació i Formació, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Pic de Peguera 11, 17003 Girona, Spain; (A.G.); (A.B.); (S.A.)
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9
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Schapiro SJ, Neal Webb SJ, Mulholland MM, Lambeth SP. Behavioral Management is a Key Component of Ethical Research. ILAR J 2021; 60:389-396. [PMID: 33434922 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilaa023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral management programs aim to enhance the welfare of animal subjects that participate in research, thereby enhancing our ability to conduct ethical research projects. Socialization strategies, environmental enrichment techniques, opportunities for subjects to voluntarily participate in research procedures, and the provision of Functionally Appropriate Captive Environments are 4 major components of most behavioral management programs. The appropriate implementation of behavioral management programs should provide animals with opportunities to engage in species-typical activity patterns, contributing to valid and reliable animal models that require the smallest number of subjects to achieve meaningful results. The role that socialization strategies, environmental enrichment techniques, and positive reinforcement training can play in maintaining and enhancing welfare through the stimulation of species-typical behavior and the prevention of abnormal behavior is discussed. The value of empirically assessing the effects of behavioral management techniques is emphasized. Additionally, the necessity of adjusting the relative prioritization of needs related to the convenience of human caregivers and the animals themselves is addressed. For the purposes of this discussion, research projects are considered to be ethical if they (1) involve animals with high welfare, (2) provide data that are reliable and valid, (3) involve appropriate numbers of subjects, and (4) involve animals that are appropriate models to test meaningful hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Schapiro
- Department of Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas, USA.,Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sarah J Neal Webb
- Department of Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas, USA.,Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michele M Mulholland
- Department of Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas, USA.,Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Susan P Lambeth
- Department of Comparative Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, Texas, USA
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10
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Brooks J, Yoshimura H, Taki Y. Knowledge-based enrichment: Development of a novel enrichment device for captive chimpanzees. Zoo Biol 2021; 40:398-406. [PMID: 34010492 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The field of environmental enrichment has grown considerably, but most enrichment is still focused on tasks where highly valued food rewards are directly visible. We designed a device which would instead make use of knowledge states, motivational structure, and physical reasoning skills and could use hidden, low-quality food items while remaining low in cost. Food items were hidden in small cardboard tubes and placed snugly inside another, larger, tube such that they were difficult to extract and presented a challenging dexterity and physical reasoning task. Rare favored food items were distributed so animals would be rewarded at irregular intervals. The devices were then presented to two groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) who either had experience extracting food from identical small cardboard tubes or had no such experience. We found that the chimpanzees with no prior experience with the small tubes used the device very little until one individual removed a small tube, revealing the food inside, at which point use time significantly increased. In the knowledgeable group, no change was observed after the first tube retrieval. Individuals in both groups used the devices for over 20 min each on average over a 1-h observation period, and in both facilities at least one device still contained all inner tubes. Our study suggests that enrichment can make use of animals' prior knowledge, that enrichment devices can thus be layered into one another, and reiterates the importance of considering animals' psychology in designing enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Brooks
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Kumamoto Sanctuary, Kyoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | | | - Yuto Taki
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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11
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Sanders K, Fernandez EJ. Behavioral Implications of Enrichment for Golden Lion Tamarins: A Tool for Ex Situ Conservation. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2020; 25:214-223. [PMID: 32841087 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2020.1809413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The re-release of golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia), from zoos into the wild, is considered to be an ex situ conservation success story. However, zoo-born golden lion tamarins have lower survival rates than their wild-born offspring, potentially due to deficient foraging and locomotion 'survival skills' acquired in captivity. The current study aimed to evaluate whether a puzzle feeder suspended and baited with different items could promote increased foraging and general activity in tamarins living in a zoo setting. A pair of tamarins at Woodland Park Zoo received the puzzle feeder in three conditions in an ABCACB experimental reversal design over a period of three months: an empty feeder and feeders baited with either fruit (raisins) or insects (mealworms). Food type affected behavior; time spent climbing increased when the feeder contained insects compared to fruit. Subjects interacted with the baited puzzle feeder device significantly more than the empty feeder, and use was highest within the first 30 minutes of exposure. Our results suggest that the puzzle feeders plus food were effective in increasing foraging and general activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eduardo J Fernandez
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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12
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Meagher RK, Strazhnik E, von Keyserlingk MAG, Weary DM. Assessing the motivation to learn in cattle. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6847. [PMID: 32321954 PMCID: PMC7176709 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-63848-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive challenges may provide a form of enrichment to improve the welfare of captive animals. Primates, dolphins, and goats will voluntarily participate in learning tasks suggesting that these are rewarding, but little work has been conducted on livestock species. We investigated the motivation of 10 pairs of Holstein heifers to experience learning opportunities using a yoked design. All heifers were trained to perform an operant response (nose touch) on a variable interval schedule. Learning heifers then performed this response to access a discrimination learning task in which colour and texture of feed-bin lids signified a preferred reward (grain) vs. a non-preferred reward (straw). Control heifers received the same feed without a choice of bins or association of feed with lid type. Learning heifers approached the target to begin sessions faster (p = 0.024) and tended to perform more operant responses (p = 0.08), indicating stronger motivation. Treatments did not differ in the frequency with which heifers participated in voluntary training sessions. We conclude that heifers are motivated to participate in learning tasks, but that aspects of the experience other than discrimination learning were also rewarding. Cognitive challenges and other opportunities to exert control over the environment may improve animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca K Meagher
- Animal Welfare Program, University of British Columbia 2357 Main Mall, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, Canada. .,Department of Animal Science and Aquaculture, Dalhousie University 58 Sipu Road, B2N 5E3, Bible Hill, N.S., Canada.
| | - Emma Strazhnik
- Animal Welfare Program, University of British Columbia 2357 Main Mall, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, Canada
| | | | - Daniel M Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, University of British Columbia 2357 Main Mall, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, Canada
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13
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Matrai E, Ng AKW, Chan MMH, Gendron SM, Dudzinski KM. Testing use of a potential cognitive enrichment device by an Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus). Zoo Biol 2020; 39:156-167. [PMID: 32128851 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive enrichment aims to provide animals with opportunities to use their cognitive skills and to promote behaviors associated with positive wellbeing. Cooperation in mammals has been recorded during various behavioral contexts such as hunting, mating, playing, and parental care. Coordinated activity, often with some level of problem-solving action included, is required during cooperation. To investigate dolphins' ability for collaborative problem-solving, an enrichment device was introduced to two adult male Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus). The device contained fish and ice and was designed to be opened by simultaneously pulling on both ends. After repeated presentation, it became apparent that only one dolphin had active interest in the device. To facilitate opportunities for problem-solving by this individual, an alternative collaborator, a human partner, was provided. Still, both dolphins had access to the device throughout the entire experiment. After the first opening, the same dolphin was highly successful in collaborating with the human in both joined (93%) and delayed (100%) partner conditions. The device provided a novel opportunity for the dolphin to use his cognitive skills. Even though only one dolphin participated actively, both dolphins showed varying degrees of interest to the device throughout the study. Both dolphins spent an average of 48% and 16% of their time, respectively, with the device, which resulted in a significant decrease in their other two most frequently observed behaviors: swimming and poolside observation. As a novel cognitive challenge, the device may be considered as a type of cognitive enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Matrai
- Research Department, Ocean Park Hong Kong, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
| | - Angela K W Ng
- Marine Mammal Department, Ocean Park Hong Kong, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
| | | | - Suzanne M Gendron
- Zoological Operations & Education, Ocean Park Hong Kong, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
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14
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Lauderdale LK, Miller LJ. Common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) problem solving strategies in response to a novel interactive apparatus. Behav Processes 2019; 169:103990. [PMID: 31678324 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The problem solving capabilities of dolphins are suggested to be indicative of advanced cognition. When confronted with a novel problem, dolphins can plan their behavior to create a more efficient strategy than that which was previously modeled. The present study investigated dolphins' ability to plan their behaviors using an interactive apparatus with accompanying weights. Two problems were presented to evaluate dolphins' ability to plan by collecting several weights at once, thus solving the apparatus more efficiently. In contrast to previous findings, dolphins in the present study failed to plan their behavior. Rather, individual differences in problem solving strategies arose throughout the study and are described here. Dolphins engaged in several strategies in order to attempt to obtain the fish reward, including approaches that were not modeled. Strategies for solving the submerged interactive apparatus (SIA) included emulation, freeloading, water flow manipulation, and physical manipulation of the SIA. The SIA was continually solved by a single individual who rarely consumed the food reward, suggesting that she may have been motivated to participate for the challenge itself. Though not indicative of planning, the results of the present study demonstrate the plasticity of dolphin problem solving capabilities and spatial reasoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Lauderdale
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA; Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, 3300 Golf Road, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA
| | - L J Miller
- Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, 3300 Golf Road, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA
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15
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Clark FE, Gray SI, Bennett P, Mason LJ, Burgess KV. High-Tech and Tactile: Cognitive Enrichment for Zoo-Housed Gorillas. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1574. [PMID: 31354581 PMCID: PMC6629937 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of environmental enrichment for zoo animals, particularly great apes, has been revived by technological advancements such as touchscreen interfaces and motion sensors. However, direct animal-computer interaction (ACI) is impractical or undesirable for many zoos. We developed a modular cuboid puzzle maze for the troop of six Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Bristol Zoo Gardens, United Kingdom. The gorillas could use their fingers or tools to interact with interconnected modules and remove food rewards. Twelve modules could be interchanged within the frame to create novel iterations with every trial. We took a screen-free approach to enrichment: substituting ACI for tactile, physically complex device components, in addition to hidden automatic sensors, and cameras to log device use. The current study evaluated the gorillas' behavioral responses to the device, and evaluated it as a form of "cognitive enrichment." Five out of six gorillas used the device, during monthly trials of 1 h duration, over a 6 month period. All users were female including two infants, and there were significant individual differences in duration of device use. The successful extraction of food rewards was only performed by the three tool-using gorillas. Device use did not diminish over time, and gorillas took turns to use the device alone or as one mother-infant dyad. Our results suggest that the device was a form of cognitive enrichment for the study troop because it allowed gorillas to solve novel challenges, and device use was not associated with behavioral indicators of stress or frustration. However, device exposure had no significant effects on gorilla activity budgets. The device has the potential to be a sustainable enrichment method in the long-term, tailored to individual gorilla skill levels and motivations. Our study represents a technological advancement for gorilla enrichment, an area which had been particularly overlooked until now. We wholly encourage the continued development of this physical maze system for other great apes under human care, with or without computer logging technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fay E. Clark
- Department of Field Conservation and Science, Bristol Zoological Society, Bristol, United Kingdom
- School of Psychological Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart I. Gray
- Centre for Entrepreneurship, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Bennett
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy J. Mason
- Department of Field Conservation and Science, Bristol Zoological Society, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Department of Health and Social Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Katy V. Burgess
- School of Psychological Science, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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16
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Neal Webb SJ, Hau J, Schapiro SJ. Relationships between captive chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes) welfare and voluntary participation in behavioural studies. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2019; 214:102-109. [PMID: 31244501 PMCID: PMC6594403 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Voluntary participation in behavioural studies offers several scientific, management, and welfare benefits to non-human primates (NHPs). Aside from the scientific benefit of increased understanding of NHP cognition, sociality, and behaviour derived from noninvasive behavioural studies, participation itself has the potential to provide functional simulations of natural behaviours, enrichment opportunities, and increased control over the captive environment, all of which enhance welfare. Despite a developing consensus that voluntary participation offers these welfare enhancements, little research has empirically investigated the ways that participation in behavioural studies may affect welfare. In the current study, we investigated potential relationships between captive chimpanzee welfare and long-term, repeated voluntary participation in noninvasive behavioural studies. We collected behavioural data on 118 chimpanzees at the National Center for Chimpanzee Care (NCCC) in Bastrop, Texas, USA between 2016 and 2018 using 15-minute focal animal samples. Additionally, we collected information on 41 behavioural studies conducted between 2010 and 2018 with the NCCC chimpanzees that involved exposure to a stimulus or manipulation. The total number of behavioural studies in which chimpanzees had participated over the approximately eight-year period was then examined in relation to levels of behavioural diversity, abnormal behaviour, rough scratching, inactivity, and locomotion using a series of regression analyses that controlled for rearing status and age of the chimpanzee at the time of data collection. Analyses revealed significant, positive relationships between the total number of studies in which chimpanzees participated and 1) behavioural diversity scores, R2 adj = .21, F(3,114) = 11.25, p < 0.001; and 2) rough scratching, R2 adj = .11, F(3,114) = 6.01, p = 0.001. The positive relationship between behavioural diversity scores and the total number of studies in which chimpanzees participated seems unsurprising, although we cannot draw conclusions about the directionality of this relationship. The result that rough scratching and the total number of studies in which chimpanzees participated were positively correlated is unexpected. However, rough scratching made up less than 1% of all activity in the current study, and as such, this result may not be biologically meaningful. These findings suggest that participation in behavioural studies is not likely to be detrimental to chimpanzee well-being, and may even be beneficial. Data such as these, which empirically investigate existing recommendations can help inform decisions pertaining to the participation of chimpanzees in behavioural research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J. Neal Webb
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, 650 Cool Water Drive, Bastrop, TX, 78602
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Jann Hau
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Steven J. Schapiro
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, 650 Cool Water Drive, Bastrop, TX, 78602
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
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17
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Abstract
Nonhuman animal welfare science is the scientific study of the welfare state of animals that attempts to make inferences about how animals feel from their behavior, endocrine function, and/or signs of physical health. These welfare measurements are applicable within zoos yet inherently more complex than in farms and laboratories. This complexity is due to the vast number of species housed, lack of fundamental biological information, and relatively lower sample sizes and levels of experimental control. This article summarizes the invited presentations on the topic of "Advances in Applied Animal Welfare Science," given at the Fourth Global Animal Welfare Congress held jointly by the Detroit Zoological Society and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums in 2017. The article focuses on current trends in research on zoo animal welfare under the following themes: (a) human-animal interactions and relationships, (b) anticipatory behavior, (c) cognitive enrichment, (d) behavioral biology, and (e) reproductive and population management. It highlights areas in which further advancements in zoo animal welfare science are needed and the challenges that may be faced in doing so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Ward
- a School of Animal Rural and Environmental Sciences , Nottingham Trent University , Southwell , United Kingdom
| | - Sally Sherwen
- b Wildlife Conservation and Science , Zoos Victoria , Melbourne , Australia
| | - Fay E Clark
- c Bristol Zoological Society , Bristol Zoo Gardens , Bristol , United Kingdom
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18
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Cronin KA, Jacobson SL, Bonnie KE, Hopper LM. Studying primate cognition in a social setting to improve validity and welfare: a literature review highlighting successful approaches. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3649. [PMID: 28791199 PMCID: PMC5545107 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studying animal cognition in a social setting is associated with practical and statistical challenges. However, conducting cognitive research without disturbing species-typical social groups can increase ecological validity, minimize distress, and improve animal welfare. Here, we review the existing literature on cognitive research run with primates in a social setting in order to determine how widespread such testing is and highlight approaches that may guide future research planning. SURVEY METHODOLOGY Using Google Scholar to search the terms "primate" "cognition" "experiment" and "social group," we conducted a systematic literature search covering 16 years (2000-2015 inclusive). We then conducted two supplemental searches within each journal that contained a publication meeting our criteria in the original search, using the terms "primate" and "playback" in one search and the terms "primate" "cognition" and "social group" in the second. The results were used to assess how frequently nonhuman primate cognition has been studied in a social setting (>3 individuals), to gain perspective on the species and topics that have been studied, and to extract successful approaches for social testing. RESULTS Our search revealed 248 unique publications in 43 journals encompassing 71 species. The absolute number of publications has increased over years, suggesting viable strategies for studying cognition in social settings. While a wide range of species were studied they were not equally represented, with 19% of the publications reporting data for chimpanzees. Field sites were the most common environment for experiments run in social groups of primates, accounting for more than half of the results. Approaches to mitigating the practical and statistical challenges were identified. DISCUSSION This analysis has revealed that the study of primate cognition in a social setting is increasing and taking place across a range of environments. This literature review calls attention to examples that may provide valuable models for researchers wishing to overcome potential practical and statistical challenges to studying cognition in a social setting, ultimately increasing validity and improving the welfare of the primates we study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A. Cronin
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
| | - Sarah L. Jacobson
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
| | - Kristin E. Bonnie
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Beloit College, Beloit, WI, United States of America
| | - Lydia M. Hopper
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
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19
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Rodríguez-López R. Environmental enrichment for parrot species: Are we squawking up the wrong tree? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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20
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Effects of crowd size on exhibit use by and behavior of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) at a zoo. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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21
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Edwards BJ, Rottman BM, Shankar M, Betzler R, Chituc V, Rodriguez R, Silva L, Wibecan L, Widness J, Santos LR. Do capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) diagnose causal relations in the absence of a direct reward? PLoS One 2014; 9:e88595. [PMID: 24586347 PMCID: PMC3929502 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We adapted a method from developmental psychology to explore whether capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) would place objects on a "blicket detector" machine to diagnose causal relations in the absence of a direct reward. Across five experiments, monkeys could place different objects on the machine and obtain evidence about the objects' causal properties based on whether each object "activated" the machine. In Experiments 1-3, monkeys received both audiovisual cues and a food reward whenever the machine activated. In these experiments, monkeys spontaneously placed objects on the machine and succeeded at discriminating various patterns of statistical evidence. In Experiments 4 and 5, we modified the procedure so that in the learning trials, monkeys received the audiovisual cues when the machine activated, but did not receive a food reward. In these experiments, monkeys failed to test novel objects in the absence of an immediate food reward, even when doing so could provide critical information about how to obtain a reward in future test trials in which the food reward delivery device was reattached. The present studies suggest that the gap between human and animal causal cognition may be in part a gap of motivation. Specifically, we propose that monkey causal learning is motivated by the desire to obtain a direct reward, and that unlike humans, monkeys do not engage in learning for learning's sake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J. Edwards
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, United States of America
| | | | - Maya Shankar
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Riana Betzler
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Vladimir Chituc
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | | | - Liara Silva
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Leah Wibecan
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Jane Widness
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Laurie R. Santos
- Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
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22
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Hopper LM, Price SA, Freeman HD, Lambeth SP, Schapiro SJ, Kendal RL. Influence of personality, age, sex, and estrous state on chimpanzee problem-solving success. Anim Cogn 2013; 17:835-47. [PMID: 24322874 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-013-0715-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Despite the importance of individual problem solvers for group- and individual-level fitness, the correlates of individual problem-solving success are still an open topic of investigation. In addition to demographic factors, such as age or sex, certain personality dimensions have also been revealed as reliable correlates of problem-solving by animals. Such correlates, however, have been little-studied in chimpanzees. To empirically test the influence of age, sex, estrous state, and different personality factors on chimpanzee problem-solving, we individually tested 36 captive chimpanzees with two novel foraging puzzles. We included both female (N=24) and male (N=12) adult chimpanzees (aged 14-47 years) in our sample. We also controlled for the females' estrous state-a potential influence on cognitive reasoning-by testing cycling females both when their sexual swelling was maximally tumescent (associated with the luteinizing hormone surge of a female's estrous cycle) and again when it was detumescent. Although we found no correlation between the chimpanzees' success with either puzzle and their age or sex, the chimpanzees' personality ratings did correlate with responses to the novel foraging puzzles. Specifically, male chimpanzees that were rated highly on the factors Methodical, Openness (to experience), and Dominance spent longer interacting with the puzzles. There was also a positive relationship between the latency of females to begin interacting with the two tasks and their rating on the factor Reactivity/Undependability. No other significant correlations were found, but we report tentative evidence for increased problem-solving success by the females when they had detumescent estrous swellings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia M Hopper
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, USA
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23
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Whitehouse J, Micheletta J, Powell LE, Bordier C, Waller BM. The impact of cognitive testing on the welfare of group housed primates. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78308. [PMID: 24223146 PMCID: PMC3819384 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Providing cognitive challenges to zoo-housed animals may provide enriching effects and subsequently enhance their welfare. Primates may benefit most from such challenges as they often face complex problems in their natural environment and can be observed to seek problem solving opportunities in captivity. However, the extent to which welfare benefits can be achieved through programmes developed primarily for cognitive research is unknown. We tested the impact of voluntary participation cognitive testing on the welfare of a socially housed group of crested macaques (Macaca nigra) at the Macaque Study Centre (Marwell Zoo). First, we compared the rate of self-directed and social behaviours on testing and non-testing days, and between conditions within testing days. Minimal differences in behaviour were found when comparing testing and non-testing days, suggesting that there was no negative impact on welfare as a result of cognitive testing. Lipsmacking behaviours were found to increase and aggressive interaction was found to decrease in the group as a result of testing. Second, social network analysis was used to assess the effect of testing on associations and interactions between individuals. The social networks showed that testing subjects increased their association with others during testing days. One interpretation of this finding could be that providing socially housed primates with an opportunity for individuals to separate from the group for short periods could help mimic natural patterns of sub-group formation and reunion in captivity. The findings suggest, therefore, that the welfare of captive primates can be improved through the use of cognitive testing in zoo environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Whitehouse
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Jérôme Micheletta
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom
- Marwell Wildlife, Winchester, United Kingdom
| | - Lauren E. Powell
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Celia Bordier
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom
| | - Bridget M. Waller
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom
- Marwell Wildlife, Winchester, United Kingdom
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24
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Clark FE, Davies SL, Madigan AW, Warner AJ, Kuczaj SA. Cognitive enrichment for bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): evaluation of a novel underwater maze device. Zoo Biol 2013; 32:608-19. [PMID: 24018985 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2013] [Revised: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive enrichment is gaining popularity as a tool to enhance captive animal well-being, but research on captive cetaceans is lacking. Dolphin cognition has been studied intensively since the 1950s, and several hundred bottlenose dolphins are housed in major zoos and aquaria worldwide, but most dolphin enrichment consists of simple floating objects. The aim of this study was to investigate whether a novel, underwater maze device (UMD) was cognitively enriching for one group of male and one group of female dolphins at Six Flags Discovery Kingdom, CA. The dolphin's task was to navigate a rubber ball through a maze of pipes, towards an exit pipe. We also tested a modification where an edible gelatine ball fell into the pool once the UMD was solved. The UMD was provided to each group between 8 and 11 times over a 4-week period. Male dolphins used the UMD without prior training, whereas females did not use the UMD at all. Two male dolphins solved the UMD 17 times, using a variety of problem-solving strategies. The UMD had no significant effect on circular (repetitive) swimming patterns, but males spent significantly more time underwater when the UMD was present. Males used the UMD significantly more when it contained the rubber ball, but the gelatine ball stimulated social play. The UMD is a safe and practical device for captive dolphins. It now requires further testing on other dolphins, particularly females, to in order to examine whether the sex differences we observed are a general phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fay E Clark
- Centre for Animal Welfare, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom; Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
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