Animal milk sustains micronutrient nutrition and child anthropometry among pastoralists in Samburu, Kenya

Effects of rabbit production on income and livelihood of rural households in Nigeria

Aims

More effort and actions are needed to combat the rising levels of food insecurity and poverty in developing countries, particularly among rural households. Rural households can significantly contribute to reducing poverty, enhancing their nutritional condition, and enhancing their standard of living by engaging in rabbit production but there are few empirical studies on the contribution of rabbit production to households' livelihood and income. Therefore, this study examines how producing rabbits affects rural farmers' income and household livelihood in Nigeria.

Methods and results

Multiple regression and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data gathered from 240 rabbit farms. The findings demonstrated that rabbit farming is a male-dominated enterprise (male 77.5%). According to the regression analysis, the income of rural households was positively and significantly impacted by the income from rabbits. Farmers' ages, interactions with extension agents, credit they accessed, and assets were further determinants of their income. Additionally, rabbit production improved the level of living of rural households. Access to forage, the prevalence of diseases, scarcity of veterinary, and the high cost of medication, were the severe constraints faced in rabbit production.

Conclusions

It may be concluded that rabbit production had a significant contribution to the economic situation, way of life, and well-being of rural households. Although there were some constraints with the operation. Females are to be encouraged in rabbit production as livelihood diversification. Also, it is crucial that banks, governments, and non-governmental organizations offer farmers easily accessible and reasonable loan facilities as this will boost their revenue. Training on forage production and storage is also recommended.

Significance and the impact of the study

Participation will be improved by having an understanding of how rabbit farming affects the income and way of life of rural dwellers. As a result, the findings of this study would enable policymakers to intervene in enhancing its production thereby encouraging more farmers to be involved in the production and also, enhancing the well-being of rural households.

Household production and consumption impacts of foot and mouth disease at the Uganda-Tanzania border

Introduction

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that is endemic in East Africa. FMD virus infection incurs significant control costs and reduces animal productivity through weight loss, lowered milk yield, and potentially death but how household's respond to these losses may differentially affect household income and food consumption.

Methodology

To address this, we use unique data from a FMD outbreak to assess how household production and consumption activities change from before to during the outbreak. Data came from a 2018 survey of 254 households in selected Tanzanian wards and sub-counties in Uganda. The data includes household recall of before and during an outbreak in the past year on livestock and livestock product sales, milk and beef consumption, as well as related changes in market prices. We apply both difference-in-difference and change in difference ordinary least squares regressions with fixed effects to evaluate the impact of FMD on household production and consumption.

Results and discussion

We find that households reported the largest reductions in livestock and livestock product sales, followed by reduced milk consumption and animal market prices. The changes in household income from livestock sales appears to be driven by FMD virus infection within the household herd while changes in market prices of substitute protein sources are primary associated with changes in milk and beef consumption. The role of widespread market price effects across both infected and uninfected herds and countries, tends to suggest that stabilizing prices will likely have a large impact on household nutritional security and income generation. We also propose that promoting diversity in market activity may mitigate differing impacts on households in FMD endemic regions.

The dietary impacts of drought in a traditional pastoralist economy

OBJECTIVES

Arid pastoralism is often understood as an adaptive strategy to marginal environments. As pastoralists become increasingly market integrated, novel dietary preferences and access to low quality market foods can erode traditional diets. These market-based dietary shifts are particularly problematic during sustained drought, where reductions in traditional foods make pastoralists increasingly reliant on a cash economy. Among the Himba of the Kunene region in Namibia, colonial policies prohibiting access to livestock markets inhibit access to a cash-based economy, leaving them vulnerable to food insecurity when nontraditional foods are needed to supplement traditional lifeways during drought. To understand the impacts of long-term drought on diet and food insecurity, we collected longitudinal survey data on diet breadth and food insecurity across 4 years during a multi-year drought.

METHODS

Participants completed a five-item food insecurity survey and recalled diet breadth survey over the course of 4 years (N = 191-234). Additionally, women completed a short survey of recent stressors, including health and resource stressors (N = 127). We used a set of multilevel models to estimate changes in food insecurity items and diet breadth changes over the course of the study period.

RESULTS

Multilevel models predicted score outcomes, as well as individual item responses, by year of data collection. Results indicate a 43% increase in average food insecurity and a 15% decline in average diet breadth over the study period. Dietary recall indicates that drought caused a reduction in sour milk intake, and an increase in nontraditional foods, but no change in meat or maize consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Sustained drought in the Kunene region is having long-term impacts on food insecurity, which could result in dietary shifts that outlast the current period of drought. We consider the implications of this change, especially as it relates to increasing market integration and reliance on a cash-based over a subsistence-based economy.

Household decision-making, women's empowerment, and increasing egg consumption in children under five in rural Burkina Faso: Observations from a cluster randomized controlled trial

Malnutrition is one of the most long-suffering problems facing women and children across the world—it is endemic to many low- and low-middle income countries and is a leading comorbidity in CU5 mortality. Malnutrition and food security are gendered issues; not only are boys and girls differently affected by these issues, but societal norms and differing roles of women and men are often drivers of these different outcomes. The United Nations seeks to address both malnutrition and gender inequality by reaching its Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Researchers have shown that women's empowerment is inextricably linked to the nutritional outcomes of children. As one dimension of women's empowerment, intra-household decision-making is an important determinant of child health and nutrition outcomes, as it can determine how resources are allocated within the household. To better understand how gender inequalities within household decision-making may contribute to child nutrition, this study examines the association between household decision-making and the adoption of behavior change to increase chicken egg consumption among infants and young children in Burkina Faso, and explores the relationship(s) between the Un Oeuf project and women's empowerment. This study analyzes data collected during the Un Oeuf cRCT (July 2018–April 2019) and additional data that were collected in conjunction with the Un Oeuf endline household survey in April 2019. Significant relationships were found between women's household decision-making about eggs and child egg consumption at the end of the project. This was true for women who did not have decision-making power at baseline (p = 0.006, OR 3.822) as well as for women who indicted having had that power and sustaining it through endline (p = 0.013, OR 6.662). Results indicate that the Un Oeuf project significantly increased women's household decision-making (p > 0.005, OR 4.045). Finally, significant relationships were found between a woman's overall level of empowerment and household decision-making power surrounding (1) what is done with household eggs (p < 0.005, OR 2.87) and (2) how foods are portioned (p = 0.012, OR 6.712). These findings illustrate the importance and potential of women's decision-making as a point of entry to improving nutritional outcomes through changes in empowerment.

Disparity in prevalence and predictors of undernutrition in children under five among agricultural, pastoral, and agro-pastoral ecological zones of Karamoja sub-region, Uganda: a cross sectional study

Background

Undernutrition accounts for nearly half of under-five child mortality in developing countries where household nutrition is largely dependent on agriculture. Despite the strong influence of agroecology on agriculture in those countries, limited information exists on whether undernutrition in children under five varies with agro-ecological location.

Methods

Using Karamoja sub-region of Uganda, one of the most food insecure parts of Eastern Africa as a case area, and applying a multi-stage sampling procedure, and a structured questionnaire, this study examined in a comparative manner, the prevalence and predictors of undernutrition in children under five among the agricultural, pastoral, and agro-pastoral ecological zones. Chi-square test and Kruskal-Wallis test were used to establish the disparity in prevalence of undernutrition and household contextual characteristics, respectively. Binary logistic regression was used to determine the predictors of undernutrition in children under five among the three agro-ecological zones. The level of statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.

Results

The prevalence of underweight, stunting, and wasting ranged from 36 to 58% but varied with agroecology in terms of the peak age ranging from 6 to 37 months. Child characteristics, feeding practices, household economic factors, sanitation factors, and caregiver characteristics that predict undernutrition among children under five were identified (p ≤ 0.05). Caregiver handwashing after using latrine (p = 0.005) and diarrhoea in a fortnight (p < 0.001) increased the likelihood of stunting in pastoral agroecology only whereas cereal storage in both sacks and granary in agro-pastoral zone was associated with reduced likelihood of both underweight (p < 0.001 and p = 0.014) and stunting (p = 0.011 and p = 0.018), respectively. A male child was more likely to be underweight and stunted in pastoral (p = 0.002 and p = 0.011) and agro-pastoral (p = 0.017 and p = 0.002) agroecology, respectively. Household expenses reduced the likelihood of both underweight and wasting in pastoral (p = 0.013 and p = 0.005) and agricultural (p = 0.011 and p = 0.021) agroecology, respectively. Flour storage duration increased the stunting likelihood in pastoral (p = 0.032) and agro-pastoral (p = 0.006) agroecologies.

Conclusion

This study has revealed that, in a food insecure developing country setting such as Karamoja sub-region of Uganda, undernutrition among children under five varies with agroecology. Thus, nutritional interventions in such locations should be agroecology specific.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12887-022-03363-6.

Mineral Nutrition of Samburu Adolescents: A Comparative Study of Pastoralist Communities in Kenya

Objectives

This study aimed to characterize mineral nutrition (copper, magnesium, selenium, and zinc) in Samburu pastoralist youth, in the context of differential cultural transitions due to uneven changes in educational access, herding intensity, polygyny, and access to wild, domesticated, and market-sourced foods.

Materials and Methods

Whole dried blood spots were collected in a total of 161 youth (highlands, n = 97; lowlands, n = 64) to assess concentrations of: cadmium, copper, lead, magnesium, mercury, selenium, and zinc. Concentrations were determined through Inductively Coupled Mass Spectrometry. Dietary intakes were assessed by 24-hour recall method and calculation of probability of inadequate intakes. WHO protocols were applied to collect anthropometric measures in the youth.

Results

Nearly half of the adolescents (47.8%) fell below the reference range for zinc status, and 88.2% had low zinc-to-copper ratios. High probability of nutrient inadequacies were evident for protein, fat, vitamins A, B12, C, and E. In generalized linear modeling, lowland residence was negatively associated with zinc status and the zinc-to-copper ratio, and positively correlated with selenium and copper status. Other significant correlates were: dairy livestock ownership; wife number of the youth's mother; meat consumption; vegetable consumption; protein intake; infectious disease morbidities; BMI; and hemoglobin concentrations.

Discussion

In recent decades, Samburu pastoralists of northern Kenya have experienced marked dietary changes in the context of market integration, extreme drought, diminishing pasture availability, and violent civil conflict. Some children (particularly boys) successfully supplement their diets by foraging for wild foods, while others (particularly actively herding girls) may be more vulnerable.

Effects of dietary and health factors on nutritional status of children in pastoral settings in Borana, southern Ethiopia, August-October 2015

BACKGROUND

Childhood undernourishment is a major public health problem globally, and being responsible for higher mortalities in children and enormous health costs in sub-Saharan Africa. However, scarcity of data on the magnitude of malnutrition and its underlying causes, especially in the pastoral system, limits the effectiveness of potential interventions. This study addresses the nutritional status and factors associated with malnutrition among children in Borana pastoral system, southern Ethiopia.

METHODS

A community based cross-sectional study, using multistage cluster sampling, was conducted from August to October 2015. Dietary diversity score (DDS), milk and meal frequencies, anthropometric measurements, and socio-economic variables were recorded for 538 children aged 6-59 months. Multivariable generalized linear model (GLM) with log link function was applied to ascertain determinants of malnutrition. The strength of association was assessed based on prevalence ratio (PR).

RESULTS

Prevalence of underweight, stunting, and wasting were 28.3 % (95 % CI: 24.4-32.1), 41.1 % (95 % CI: 36.7-45.1), and 9.8 % (95 % CI: 7.3, 12.4), respectively. Children who consumed more diverse foods were at a lower risk of being underweight (PR = 0.72, 95 % CL: 0.59-0.88), stunted (PR = 0.80, 95 % CL: 0.68-0.93) and wasted (PR = 0.42, 95 % CL: 0.27-0.66). Intake of increased milk frequency was also associated with lower risk of underweight (PR = 0.86, 95 %CL: 0.76-0.97), stunting (PR = 0.83, 95 %CL: 0.75-0.91) and wasting (PR = 0.73, 95 %CL: 0.56-0.96). The risk of underweight (PR = 1.02, 95 %CL: 1.01-1.03), stunting (PR = 1.01, 95 %CL: 1.00-1.02) and wasting (PR = 1.01, 95 %CL: 1.00-1.04) had increased with age, and no difference was observed between boys and girls. Children who lived far away from health care facilities were 1.2 and 2.4 times more likely to be stunted and wasted, respectively than those residing near a health care facility. Ownership of toilet and living close to market were associated with reduced stunting, whereas illness was associated with increased risk of underweight.

CONCLUSIONS

The high prevalence of stunting among pastoral children is a serious public health concern and calls for urgent action. Association of nutritional status of children with dietary intake, and health status, access to health services and toilet availability underlines the need for improved nutrition practices, health care facilities and sanitary conditions in the study area.

Family socioeconomic status and child telomere length among the Samburu of Kenya

Previous research in high-income countries suggests that children from families with lower socioeconomic status (SES) tend to have shorter telomere length - a biomarker of stress and cell aging - than children from families with greater social and economic resources. However, little is known about predictors of child telomere length in low-income settings. Data for the current study are from a sample of 214 Samburu children aged 1-9 years. The Samburu are semi-nomadic pastoralists who live in the Rift Valley of north-central Kenya. Samburu livelihood is based primarily on livestock, and polygynous marriage is common. Drawing on prior ethnographic research, we measured 14 culturally relevant indicators of family SES, including mother's education, head of household's education, whether the child is currently attending school, household spending, mother's employment history, head of household's employment history, mother's perceived wealth, whether the child lives in a modern house, livestock holdings (total, cows, sheep/goats, and camels), mother's wife number, and whether the child lives in a polygynous household. Telomere length was measured in salivary DNA by the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) method. Using latent class analysis, we identified four groups of children that are similar based on the 14 indicators of family SES: Lower SES; Middle SES, Traditional; Middle SES, Modern; and Higher SES. SES classes were not significantly associated with child telomere length. In models examining individual indicators of SES, we found that telomere length was 0.57 standard deviations greater for children who lived in families in the lowest quartile of total livestock holdings compared to those in the highest quartile (b = 0.57, p = 0.03). While additional research is needed to identify the mechanisms underlying this counterintuitive finding, the current study highlights the importance of cultural context in shaping the social gradient in health.

A Systematic Scoping Review of the Impacts of Community Food Production Initiatives in Kenya, Cameroon, and South Africa

BACKGROUND

Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, one in two people in Africa were food insecure. The burden of malnutrition remains high (e.g. childhood stunting, anaemia in women of reproductive age) or are increasing (e.g. overweight and obesity). A range of coordinated actions are required to improve this situation, including increasing local food production and consumption. The aim of this review was to provide a systematic and comprehensive overview of recently published research into the health, social, economic, and environmental impacts of community food production initiatives (CFPIs) in Kenya, Cameroon and South Africa.

METHODS

We searched eight electronic databases covering health, social, environmental, economic and agricultural sciences. Primary research studies published from 1 January 2014 to 31 December 2018 were considered. Data on geographic location, study design, type of CFPI and the impacts assessed were abstracted from eligible articles.

FINDINGS

We identified 4828 articles, 260 of which required full-text review and 118 met our eligibility criteria. Most research was conducted in Kenya (53.4%) and South Africa (38.1%). The categories of CFPIs studied were (in order of decreasing frequency): crop farming, livestock farming, unspecified farming, fisheries, home / school gardens, urban agriculture, and agroforestry. The largest number of studies were on the economic and environmental impacts of CFPIs, followed by their health and social impacts. The health impacts investigated included food security, nutrition status and dietary intake. One study investigated the potential impact of CFPIs on non-communicable diseases. Over 60% of studies investigated a single category of impact. Not one of the studies explicitly used a theoretical framework to guide its design or interpretation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings on research studies of CFPIs suggest the need for a greater focus on interdisciplinary research in order to improve understanding of the relationships between their health, environmental, economic, and social impacts. Greater use of explicit theoretical frameworks could assist in research design and interpretation, helping to ensure its relevance to informing coordinated intersectoral interventions and policy initiatives.

Toxic heavy metals and nutrient concentration in the milk of goat herds in two Iranian industrial and non-industrial zones

This work aimed to explore the concentration of nickel, manganese, iron, copper, chromium, and lead in the milk of goat herds in the industrial area of Asaluyeh (southern Iran) and the non-industrial area of Kaki. The milk of 16 goat herds (each herd had at least ten goats) was collected in several villages in each area, and at the same time, the drinking water and forage of goats were sampled. The concentration of elements in the samples was determined by ICP-OES. The mean concentrations of chromium, copper, iron, manganese, lead, and nickel in milk samples of the Asaluyeh area were 16.423 ± 0.349, 0.146 ± 0.118, 6.111 ± 0.501, 0.239 ± 0.016, 0.141 ± 0.030, and 1.447 ± 0.101 mg/kg, respectively. Concentrations of heavy metals (except for copper) in the milk of goats in the industrialized area of Asaluyeh were significantly higher than that of Kaki (P < 0.05). Also, the content of heavy metals was significantly correlated with lactose levels (P < 0.05). The hazard index for drinking the goat milk was computed to be 0.444 and 0.386 for the Asaluyeh and Kaki area, respectively, which shows a minimal effect of this exposure pathway.

Sociocultural Influences on Food Choices and Implications for Sustainable Healthy Diets

Background:

The global policy discourse on sustainability and health has called for dietary transformations that require diverse, concerted actions from governments and institutions. In this article, we highlight the need to examine sociocultural influences on food practices as precursors to food policy decisions.

Discussion:

Sociocultural food practices relate to ideas and materials that give rise to food choices and food patterns of a group. We begin with a discussion of how individuals experience, interpret, negotiate, and symbolize the food world around them. We examine primarily the ideational pathways, such as identity, gender, religion, and cultural prohibitions, and their influence on food practices. We then provide guiding questions, frameworks, and a brief overview of food choice values to support policy planning and design. Lastly, we explore how sociocultural change for sustainable or healthy diets is already happening through food movements, food lifestyles, and traditional diets.

Livestock ownership and anaemia in Sub-Saharan African households

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association between livestock ownership and Hb concentration of women of child-bearing age (WCBA) and preschool-aged children in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

DESIGN

A prospective analysis of publicly available cross-sectional data, using linear and logistic regressions controlling for potential confounders.

SETTING

Twenty-eight countries in SSA.

PARTICIPANTS

162 305 WCBA and 118 607 children aged 6-59 months.

RESULTS

More than half of WCBA (62·5 %) and children (58 %) belonged to households that owned livestock. The average altitude-adjusted blood Hb concentration for WCBA and children was 12.23 and 10·24 g/dL, respectively. In adjusted models, higher number of livestock owned was associated with lower Hb concentration for children but not for WCBA. The magnitude of the association for children was small, with one additional unit of livestock owned reducing Hb concentration by 0·001 g/dL. Higher numbers of cattle, cows and bulls, sheep, and goats were associated with lower Hb concentration for both groups. The number of certain categories of livestock owned was associated with the consumption of relevant foods by children. There was no association between the consumption of animal-source foods and Hb concentration or between livestock ownership and diarrhoeal diseases or fever among children.

CONCLUSIONS

Livestock ownership in SSA had a net negative association with the Hb concentration of children and no association with that of WCBA. The results highlight the need for research aimed at clarifying the mechanisms linking livestock ownership and nutritional status, and identifying entry points for leveraging livestock ownership to improve the health of women and children in SSA.

Political ecology of milk: Contested futures of a lively food

This article advances thinking on the political ecology of food and agriculture by reviewing research on milk and dairy. As increasingly contested foods, milk and dairy provide a window onto inter-linked social and environmental crises and attempts to solve them through adjustments to food production and consumption. We critically assess three trajectories of change (more milk, better milk, and less milk) that are representative of broader efforts to fix social-environmental crises through food. Arguing that these efforts eschew systemic change, we discuss how ideas from food studies, agrarian political economy, and development studies can be united in a potentially transformative research agenda on the political ecology of milk (as well as other foods).We reflect on how concepts of justice, power, and care might inform a political ecology of food and agriculture that can help envision and enact more democratic food futures.

Nutritional status and intestinal parasites among young children from pastoralist communities of the Ethiopian Somali region

Pastoralist children in the Ethiopian Somali Regional State (ESRS) are at high risk for undernutrition and intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs). We assessed the nutritional status and its association with IPIs in 500 children <5 years of age in a clustered cross‐sectional study in Adadle district, ESRS. Stool samples were microscopically examined for IPIs and biomarkers for iron and vitamin A status, anthropometry, and food variety score (FVS) were assessed. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) FVS was 2.0 (2.0, 4.0), and 35% of children were exclusively breastfed up to age 6 months. Prevalence of stunting, wasting, underweight and mid‐upper arm circumference (MUAC) <12.5 cm was 30, 34, 40, and 16%, respectively. Median (IQR) haemoglobin, ferritin, and retinol‐binding protein concentrations were 9.5 g dL^‐1 (8.2, 10.9), 6.2 μg L^‐1 (4.0, 10.2), and 0.8 μmol L⁻¹ (0.67, 0.91), respectively. Prevalence of anaemia, iron, and vitamin A deficiency was 75, 91, and 30%, respectively. IPIs' prevalence was 47%; the most prevalent IPIs were Giardia lamblia (22%) and Ascaris lumbricoides (15%). Giardial infections but not A. lumbricoides increased the risk for MUAC <12.5 cm (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 3.50, 95% confidence interval [CI] [2.21, 5.54]). The odds for anaemia were 97% (aOR: 0.03, 95% CI [0.03, 0.07]) and 89% (aOR: 0.11, 95% CI [0.11, 0.23]) less for children with FVS >2 or with exclusive breastfeeding up to 6 months, respectively. Undernutrition and IPIs are alarmingly high in <5 years of age children in ESRS. Giardial infections and low nutritional adequacy of the diet seem to be major contributing factors to the precarious nutritional status and should be addressed by appropriate interventions.

Assessing the Impact of Animal Husbandry and Capture on Anemia among Women and Children in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review

Animal husbandry and capture (AHC) may mitigate anemia among women and children by supplying a source of micronutrient-rich animal source foods (ASF), yet may concurrently increase exposure to anemia-inducing pathogens such as Plasmodium spp., helminths, and enteropathogens. We conducted a systematic literature review to assess the relation between AHC and anemia among women of reproductive age, school-aged children, and children aged <5 y in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We used a 2-stage screening process, in which 1 reviewer searched 4 databases (PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Global Health) with predetermined search terms for relevant articles. Two reviewers then independently screened studies using a priori exclusion criteria, yielding a total of 23 articles included in the final review. We evaluated evidence from observational studies assessing animal-dependent livelihoods and livestock ownership, and interventions that promoted livestock and fish production. We found little consistency in anemia outcomes across the several AHC exposures and population groups. Poultry production interventions had modest benefits on anemia among women and children, although whether these improvements were a result of increased ASF consumption, or a result of the combined treatment study design could not be determined. Observational studies identified chicken ownership, and no other livestock species, as a risk factor for anemia among young children. However, there was limited evidence to evaluate pathways underlying these associations. Studies tended to rely on self-reported fever and diarrhea to assess illness, and no study directly assessed linkages between AHC, pathogen burden, and anemia. Thus, there is insufficient evidence to conclude whether AHC improves or worsens anemia among women and children in LMICs. Given the current interest in promoting animal production among low-income households, future studies with robust measures of livestock ownership, ASF consumption, pathogen burden, and anemia status are needed to understand the nuances of this complex and potentially contradictory relation.

Animal pathogens and their impact on animal health, the economy, food security, food safety and public health

Animal pathogens attract attention in both the livestock and public health sectors for their impacts on socio-economics, food safety and security, and human health. These impacts are felt at the household, national, regional and global levels. Whereas the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has identified 118 animal diseases as notifiable, based on their potential for impact on trade, there is a selected subset that have been classified as posing a greater threat to countries due to unique characteristics, such as being highly transmissible, spreading rapidly within and between countries, and requiring cooperation between several countries to control their spread or exclude them. While these 'transboundary diseases' are endemic in much of the world, particularly the developing nations, many countries are classified as disease free. Following the terrorist events of 11 September 2001 in the United States, a small group of zoonotic pathogens and a group of animal-specific pathogens (those that cause what are referred to as `high-consequence foreign animal diseases'), were classified as high-risk, biothreat 'select agents'. Rather than providing a comprehensive review of all animal pathogens, the authors briefly review the impact of these high-risk biothreat agents on animal health, the economy, food security and safety, and public health, using highly pathogenic avian influenza, foot and mouth disease and brucellosis as examples. They focus on the impact of these diseases in the context of high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries, comparing and contrasting their impact at the national and individual household levels.

Examining the association between livestock ownership typologies and child nutrition in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia

Objective

To investigate the association between livestock ownership and dietary diversity, animal-source food consumption, height-for-age z-score, and stunting among children living in wildlife “buffer zones” of Zambia’s Luangwa Valley using a novel livestock typology approach.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 838 children aged 6–36 months. Households were categorized into typologies based on the types and numbers of animals owned, ranging from no livestock to large numbers of mixed livestock. We used multilevel mixed-effects linear and logistic regression to examine the association between livestock typologies and four nutrition-related outcomes of interest. Results were compared with analyses using more common binary and count measures of livestock ownership.

Results

No measure of livestock ownership was significantly associated with children’s odds of animal-source food consumption, child height-for-age z-score, or stunting odds. Livestock ownership Type 2 (having a small number of poultry) was surprisingly associated with decreased child dietary diversity (β = -0.477; p<0.01) relative to owning no livestock. Similarly, in comparison models, chicken ownership was negatively associated with dietary diversity (β = -0.320; p<0.01), but increasing numbers of chickens were positively associated with dietary diversity (β = 0.022; p<0.01). Notably, neither child dietary diversity nor animal-source food consumption was significantly associated with height, perhaps due to unusually high prevalences of morbidities.

Conclusions

Our novel typologies methodology allowed for an efficient and a more in-depth examination of the differential impact of livestock ownership patterns compared to typical binary or count measures of livestock ownership. We found that these patterns were not positively associated with child nutrition outcomes in this context. Development and conservation programs focusing on livestock must carefully consider the complex, context-specific relationship between livestock ownership and nutrition outcomes–including how livestock are utilized by the target population–when attempting to use livestock as a means of improving child nutrition.

"Men Are in Front at Eating Time, but Not When It Comes to Rearing the Chicken": Unpacking the Gendered Benefits and Costs of Livestock Ownership in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Livestock can promote resilience in low-income communities through a number of pathways. Livestock development programs seek to amplify these benefits but often fail to consider the costs to intended beneficiaries or the effect of prevailing gender norms.

OBJECTIVE

To explore perceptions of livestock ownership among female smallholder livestock keepers in Nyanza Region, Kenya, and unpack how the distribution of livestock benefits and investments varies by gender within households.

METHODS

We used multiple ethnographic techniques, including Photovoice, a photo-elicitation interview method, focus group discussions, and pile sorts, with female smallholder livestock owners (n = 18) participating in an ongoing cohort study. Transcripts were coded using a combination of a priori constructs and grounded theory.

RESULTS

We found that livestock benefited households by providing financial security, food security, social benefits, and human time and labor savings. However, these benefits largely promoted long-term household resilience rather than immediate gains. Livestock ownership also had major costs to household time and labor, which were overwhelmingly borne by women and children. Despite this investment, women had limited livestock ownership rights, decision-making power, control over income, or access to meat.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that livestock ownership requires significant investments of household time and labor, which disproportionately burden women. Prevailing gender inequalities may therefore constrain the net benefit of livestock ownership for many women and their households in some contexts. Livestock development programs must assess both program benefits and costs at multiple levels to ensure that women's participation in livestock production leads to improved individual and household outcomes.

Genome-nutrition divergence: evolving understanding of the malnutrition spectrum

Humans adapted over a period of 2.3 million years to a diet high in quality and diversity. Genome-nutrition divergence describes the misalignment between modern global diets and the genome formed through evolution. A survey of hominin diets over time shows that humans have thrived on a broad range of foods. Earlier diets were highly diverse and nutrient dense, in contrast to modern food systems in which monotonous diets of staple cereals and ultraprocessed foods play a more prominent role. Applying the lens of genome-nutrition divergence to malnutrition reveals shared risk factors for undernutrition and overnutrition at nutrient, food, and environmental levels. Mechanisms for food system shifts, such as crop-neutral agricultural policy, agroecology, and social policy, are explored as a means to realign modern diets with the nutritional patterns to which humans may be better adapted to thrive.

Livestock Ownership Among Rural Households and Child Morbidity and Mortality: An Analysis of Demographic Health Survey Data from 30 Sub-Saharan African Countries (2005-2015)

Children living in homes with livestock may have both an increased risk of enteric infections and improved access to food, and therefore improved nutritional status. Few studies, however, have characterized these relationships in tandem. This study investigated the association between child health and household ownership of livestock. A cross-sectional study was performed using data from Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in 30 sub-Saharan African countries with 215,971 rural children under 5 years of age from 2005 to 2015. Logistic regression was performed for each country to estimate the relationship between a log₂ increase in the number of livestock owned by the household and three child-health outcomes: 2-week prevalence of diarrhea, stunting, and all-cause mortality. Results for each country were combined using meta-analyses. Most countries (22 of 30) displayed an odds ratio (OR) less than 1 for child stunting associated with livestock (pooled OR = 0.97; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.95, 0.99). The results for diarrhea were more even with 14 countries displaying ORs greater than 1 and 10 displaying ORs less than 1. Most countries (22 of 30) displayed an OR greater than 1 for child mortality (pooled OR = 1.04; 95% CI = 1.02, 1.06). All meta-analyses displayed significant heterogeneity by country. Our analysis is consistent with the theory that livestock may have a dual role as protective against stunting, an indicator of chronic malnutrition, and a risk factor for all-cause mortality in children, which may be linked to acute infections. The heterogeneity by country, however, indicates more data are needed on specific household livestock management practices.

African fermented dairy products - Overview of predominant technologically important microorganisms focusing on African Streptococcus infantarius variants and potential future applications for enhanced food safety and security

Milk is a major source of nutrients, but can also be a vehicle for zoonotic foodborne diseases, especially when raw milk is consumed. In Africa, poor processing and storage conditions contribute to contamination, outgrowth and transmission of pathogens, which lead to spoilage, reduced food safety and security. Fermentation helps mitigate the impact of poor handling and storage conditions by enhancing shelf life and food safety. Traditionally-fermented sour milk products are culturally accepted and widely distributed in Africa, and rely on product-specific microbiota responsible for aroma, flavor and texture. Knowledge of microbiota and predominant, technologically important microorganisms is critical in developing products with enhanced quality and safety, as well as sustainable interventions for these products, including Africa-specific starter culture development. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge of technologically-important microorganisms of African fermented dairy products (FDP) and raw milk, taking into consideration novel findings and taxonomy when re-analyzing data of 29 publications covering 25 products from 17 African countries. Technologically-important lactic acid bacteria such as Lactococcus lactis and Streptococcus infantarius subsp. infantarius (Sii), Lactobacillus spp. and yeasts predominated in raw milk and FDP across Africa. Re-analysis of data also suggests a much wider distribution of Sii and thus a potentially longer history of use than previously expected. Therefore, evaluating the role and safety of African Sii lineages is important when developing interventions and starter cultures for FDP in Africa to enhance food safety and food security. In-depth functional genomics, epidemiologic investigations and latest identification approaches coupled with stakeholder involvement will be required to evaluate the possibility of African Sii lineages as novel food-grade Streptococcus lineage.

East and West African milk products are reservoirs for human and livestock-associated Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus frequently isolated from milk products in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a major pathogen responsible for food intoxication, human and animal diseases. SSA hospital-derived strains are well studied but data on the population structure of foodborne S. aureus required to identify possible staphylococcal food poisoning sources is lacking. Therefore, the aim was to assess the population genetic structure, virulence and antibiotic resistance genes associated with milk-derived S. aureus isolates from Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya and Somalia through spa-typing, MLST, and DNA microarray analysis. Seventy milk S. aureus isolates from the three countries were assigned to 27 spa (7 new) and 23 (12 new) MLST sequence types. Milk-associated S. aureus of the three countries is genetically diverse comprising human and livestock-associated clonal complexes (CCs) predominated by the CC5 (n = 10) and CC30 (n = 9) isolates. Panton-Valentine leukocidin, toxic shock syndrome toxin and enterotoxin encoding genes were predominantly observed among human-associated CCs. Penicillin, fosfomycin and tetracycline, but not methicillin resistance genes were frequently detected. Our findings indicate that milk-associated S. aureus in SSA originates from human and animal sources alike highlighting the need for an overarching One Health approach to reduce S. aureus disease burdens through improving production processes, animal care and hygienic measures.

Relations between Household Livestock Ownership, Livestock Disease, and Young Child Growth

BACKGROUND

In resource-limited settings in which child malnutrition is prevalent, humans live in close proximity to household livestock. However, the relation between household livestock and child nutrition represents a considerable knowledge gap.

OBJECTIVE

We assessed whether household livestock ownership or livestock disease episodes were associated with growth in young children in western Kenya.

METHODS

We incorporated monthly anthropometric measurements for children <5 y of age into an ongoing linked human and animal surveillance cohort in rural western Kenya. Using linear mixed models adjusted for age, sex, and household wealth, we tested whether baseline household livestock ownership was related to baseline child height for age or prospective growth rate. We also evaluated whether livestock disease episodes were associated with child growth rate over 11 mo of follow-up.

RESULTS

We collected data on 925 children over the course of follow-up. Greater household livestock ownership at baseline was not related to baseline child height-for-age z score (adjusted β: 0.01 SD; 95% CI: -0.02, 0.04 SD) or child growth rate (adjusted β: 0.02 cm/y; 95% CI: -0.03, 0.07 cm/y). Livestock disease episodes were not significantly associated with child growth across the entire cohort (adjusted β: -0.007 cm/mo; 95% CI: -0.02, 0.006 cm/mo). However, children in households with livestock digestive disease between June and November gained less height than did children in households that did not report livestock disease (β: -0.063 cm/mo; 95% CI: -0.112, -0.016 cm/mo). Children <2 y of age in households with livestock digestive disease gained less weight than did those who did not report disease (β: -0.033 kg/mo; 95% CI: -0.063, -0.003 kg/mo).

CONCLUSION

In this cohort of young children in western Kenya, we did not find an association between ownership of livestock and child growth status. However, disease episodes in household livestock may be related to a lower child growth rate in some groups.

Linking human health and livestock health: a "one-health" platform for integrated analysis of human health, livestock health, and economic welfare in livestock dependent communities

Background

For most rural households in sub-Saharan Africa, healthy livestock play a key role in averting the burden associated with zoonotic diseases, and in meeting household nutritional and socio-economic needs. However, there is limited understanding of the complex nutritional, socio-economic, and zoonotic pathways that link livestock health to human health and welfare. Here we describe a platform for integrated human health, animal health and economic welfare analysis designed to address this challenge. We provide baseline epidemiological data on disease syndromes in humans and the animals they keep, and provide examples of relationships between human health, animal health and household socio-economic status.

Method

We designed a study to obtain syndromic disease data in animals along with economic and behavioral information for 1500 rural households in Western Kenya already participating in a human syndromic disease surveillance study. Data collection started in February 2013, and each household is visited bi-weekly and data on four human syndromes (fever, jaundice, diarrhea and respiratory illness) and nine animal syndromes (death, respiratory, reproductive, musculoskeletal, nervous, urogenital, digestive, udder disorders, and skin disorders in cattle, sheep, goats and chickens) are collected. Additionally, data from a comprehensive socio-economic survey is collected every 3 months in each of the study households.

Findings

Data from the first year of study showed 93% of the households owned at least one form of livestock (55%, 19%, 41% and 88% own cattle, sheep, goats and chickens respectively). Digestive disorders, mainly diarrhea episodes, were the most common syndromes observed in cattle, goats and sheep, accounting for 56% of all livestock syndromes, followed by respiratory illnesses (18%). In humans, respiratory illnesses accounted for 54% of all illnesses reported, followed by acute febrile illnesses (40%) and diarrhea illnesses (5%). While controlling for household size, the incidence of human illness increased 1.31-fold for every 10 cases of animal illness or death observed (95% CI 1.16–1.49). Access and utilization of animal source foods such as milk and eggs were positively associated with the number of cattle and chickens owned by the household. Additionally, health care seeking was correlated with household incomes and wealth, which were in turn correlated with livestock herd size.

Conclusion

This study platform provides a unique longitudinal dataset that allows for the determination and quantification of linkages between human and animal health, including the impact of healthy animals on human disease averted, malnutrition, household educational attainment, and income levels.