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Cozzi M, Ferrari V. Autophagy Dysfunction in ALS: from Transport to Protein Degradation. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:1456-1481. [PMID: 35708843 PMCID: PMC9293831 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-022-02029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease affecting upper and lower motor neurons (MNs). Since the identification of the first ALS mutation in 1993, more than 40 genes have been associated with the disorder. The most frequent genetic causes of ALS are represented by mutated genes whose products challenge proteostasis, becoming unable to properly fold and consequently aggregating into inclusions that impose proteotoxic stress on affected cells. In this context, increasing evidence supports the central role played by autophagy dysfunctions in the pathogenesis of ALS. Indeed, in early stages of disease, high levels of proteins involved in autophagy are present in ALS MNs; but at the same time, with neurodegeneration progression, autophagy-mediated degradation decreases, often as a result of the accumulation of toxic protein aggregates in affected cells. Autophagy is a complex multistep pathway that has a central role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Several proteins are involved in its tight regulation, and importantly a relevant fraction of ALS-related genes encodes products that directly take part in autophagy, further underlining the relevance of this key protein degradation system in disease onset and progression. In this review, we report the most relevant findings concerning ALS genes whose products are involved in the several steps of the autophagic pathway, from phagophore formation to autophagosome maturation and transport and finally to substrate degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Cozzi
- Dipartimento Di Scienze Farmacologiche E Biomolecolari, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy.
| | - Veronica Ferrari
- Dipartimento Di Scienze Farmacologiche E Biomolecolari, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy.
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2
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Todd TW, Petrucelli L. Modelling amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in rodents. Nat Rev Neurosci 2022; 23:231-251. [PMID: 35260846 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00564-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The efficient study of human disease requires the proper tools, one of the most crucial of which is an accurate animal model that faithfully recapitulates the human condition. The study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is no exception. Although the majority of ALS cases are considered sporadic, most animal models of this disease rely on genetic mutations identified in familial cases. Over the past decade, the number of genes associated with ALS has risen dramatically and, with each new genetic variant, there is a drive to develop associated animal models. Rodent models are of particular importance as they allow for the study of ALS in the context of a living mammal with a comparable CNS. Such models not only help to verify the pathogenicity of novel mutations but also provide critical insight into disease mechanisms and are crucial for the testing of new therapeutics. In this Review, we aim to summarize the full spectrum of ALS rodent models developed to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany W Todd
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Leonard Petrucelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
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3
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Bonifacino T, Zerbo RA, Balbi M, Torazza C, Frumento G, Fedele E, Bonanno G, Milanese M. Nearly 30 Years of Animal Models to Study Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Historical Overview and Future Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212236. [PMID: 34830115 PMCID: PMC8619465 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal, multigenic, multifactorial, and non-cell autonomous neurodegenerative disease characterized by upper and lower motor neuron loss. Several genetic mutations lead to ALS development and many emerging gene mutations have been discovered in recent years. Over the decades since 1990, several animal models have been generated to study ALS pathology including both vertebrates and invertebrates such as yeast, worms, flies, zebrafish, mice, rats, guinea pigs, dogs, and non-human primates. Although these models show different peculiarities, they are all useful and complementary to dissect the pathological mechanisms at the basis of motor neuron degeneration and ALS progression, thus contributing to the development of new promising therapeutics. In this review, we describe the up to date and available ALS genetic animal models, classified by the different genetic mutations and divided per species, pointing out their features in modeling, the onset and progression of the pathology, as well as their specific pathological hallmarks. Moreover, we highlight similarities, differences, advantages, and limitations, aimed at helping the researcher to select the most appropriate experimental animal model, when designing a preclinical ALS study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Bonifacino
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
- Inter-University Center for the Promotion of the 3Rs Principles in Teaching & Research (Centro 3R), 56122 Genoa, Italy
| | - Roberta Arianna Zerbo
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
| | - Matilde Balbi
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
| | - Carola Torazza
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
| | - Giulia Frumento
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
| | - Ernesto Fedele
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Giambattista Bonanno
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Marco Milanese
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, 16148 Genoa, Italy; (T.B.); (R.A.Z.); (M.B.); (C.T.); (G.F.); (G.B.); (M.M.)
- Inter-University Center for the Promotion of the 3Rs Principles in Teaching & Research (Centro 3R), 56122 Genoa, Italy
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4
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Kim J, Kim S, Nahm M, Li TN, Lin HC, Kim YD, Lee J, Yao CK, Lee S. ALS2 regulates endosomal trafficking, postsynaptic development, and neuronal survival. J Cell Biol 2021; 220:e202007112. [PMID: 33683284 PMCID: PMC7944400 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202007112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the human ALS2 gene cause recessive juvenile-onset amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and related motor neuron diseases. Although the ALS2 protein has been identified as a guanine-nucleotide exchange factor for the small GTPase Rab5, its physiological roles remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the Drosophila homologue of ALS2 (dALS2) promotes postsynaptic development by activating the Frizzled nuclear import (FNI) pathway. dALS2 loss causes structural defects in the postsynaptic subsynaptic reticulum (SSR), recapitulating the phenotypes observed in FNI pathway mutants. Consistently, these developmental phenotypes are rescued by postsynaptic expression of the signaling-competent C-terminal fragment of Drosophila Frizzled-2 (dFz2). We further demonstrate that dALS2 directs early to late endosome trafficking and that the dFz2 C terminus is cleaved in late endosomes. Finally, dALS2 loss causes age-dependent progressive defects resembling ALS, including locomotor impairment and brain neurodegeneration, independently of the FNI pathway. These findings establish novel regulatory roles for dALS2 in endosomal trafficking, synaptic development, and neuronal survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joohyung Kim
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sungdae Kim
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Minyeop Nahm
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Tsai-Ning Li
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Chieh Lin
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yeongjin David Kim
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jihye Lee
- Department of Oral Pathology, Department of Life Science in Dentistry, Dental and Life Science Institute, School of Dentistry, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Chi-Kuang Yao
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Neuroscience Program of Academia Sinica, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, College of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Seungbok Lee
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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5
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Yadav RK, Minz E, Mehan S. Understanding Abnormal c-JNK/p38MAPK Signaling in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Potential Drug Targets and Influences on Neurological Disorders. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2021; 20:417-429. [PMID: 33557726 DOI: 10.2174/1871527320666210126113848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
c-JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family members work in a cell-specific manner to regulate neuronal signals. The abnormal activation of these cellular signals can cause glutamate excitotoxicity, disrupted protein homeostasis, defective axonal transport, and synaptic dysfunction. Various pre-clinical and clinical findings indicate that the up-regulation of c-JNK and p38MAPK signaling is associated with neurological disorders. Exceptionally, a significant amount of experimental data has recently shown that dysregulated c-JNK and p38MAPK are implicated in the damage to the central nervous system, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Furthermore, currently available information has shown that c- JNK/p38MAPK signaling inhibitors may be a promising therapeutic alternative for improving histopathological, functional, and demyelination defects related to motor neuron disabilities. Understanding the abnormal activation of c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling and the prediction of motor neuron loss may help identify important therapeutic interventions that could prevent neurocomplications. Based on the involvement of c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling in the brain, we have assumed that the downregulation of the c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling pathway could trigger neuroprotection and neurotrophic effects towards clinicopathological presentations of ALS and other brain diseases. Thus, this research-based review also outlines the inhibition of c-JNK and p38MAPK signal downregulation in the pursuit of disease-modifying therapies for ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeshwar Kumar Yadav
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Elizabeth Minz
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Sidharth Mehan
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
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6
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Ozdinler PH, Gautam M, Gozutok O, Konrad C, Manfredi G, Gomez EA, Mitsumoto H, Erb ML, Tian Z, Haase G. Better understanding the neurobiology of primary lateral sclerosis. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Frontotemporal Degener 2020; 21:35-46. [PMID: 33602014 PMCID: PMC8016556 DOI: 10.1080/21678421.2020.1837175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) is a rare neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive degeneration of upper motor neurons (UMNs). Recent studies shed new light onto the cellular events that are particularly important for UMN maintenance including intracellular trafficking, mitochondrial energy homeostasis and lipid metabolism. This review summarizes these advances including the role of Alsin as a gene linked to atypical forms of juvenile PLS, and discusses wider aspects of cellular pathology that have been observed in adult forms of PLS. The review further discusses the prospects of new transgenic upper motor neuron reporter mice, human stem cell-derived UMN cultures, cerebral organoids and non-human primates as future model systems to better understand and ultimately treat PLS.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. Hande Ozdinler
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mukesh Gautam
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Oge Gozutok
- Weill Cornell Medicine, Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, New York, NY USA
| | - Csaba Konrad
- Weill Cornell Medicine, Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, New York, NY USA
| | - Giovanni Manfredi
- Weill Cornell Medicine, Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, New York, NY USA
| | - Estela Area Gomez
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hiroshi Mitsumoto
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Eleanor and Lou Gehrig ALS Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marcella L. Erb
- School of Medicine Light Microscopy Core, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Zheng Tian
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Georg Haase
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Marseille, France
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7
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Wieters F, Weiss Lucas C, Gruhn M, Büschges A, Fink GR, Aswendt M. Introduction to spasticity and related mouse models. Exp Neurol 2020; 335:113491. [PMID: 33007294 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although spasticity is one of the most common causes of motor disability worldwide, its precise definition and pathophysiology remain elusive, which to date renders its experimental targeting tricky. At least in part, this difficulty is caused by heterogeneous phenotypes of spasticity-causing neurological disorders, all causing spasticity by involving upper motor neurons. The most common clinical symptoms are a series of rapid muscle contractions (clonus), an increased muscle tone (hypertonia), and augmented tendon reflex activity (hyperreflexia). This muscle overactivity is due to disturbed inhibition of spinal reflexes following upper motor neuron dysfunction. Despite a range of physical and pharmacological therapies ameliorating the symptoms, their targeted application remains difficult. Therefore, to date, spasticity impacts rehabilitative therapy, and no therapy exists that reverses the pathology completely. In contrast to the incidence and importance of spasticity, only very little pre-clinical work in animal models exists, and this research is focused on the cat or the rat spastic tail model to decipher altered reflexes and excitability of the motor neurons in the spinal cord. Meanwhile, the characterization of spasticity in clinically more relevant mouse models of neurological disorders, such as stroke, remains understudied. Here, we provide a brief introduction into the clinical knowledge and therapy of spasticity and an in-depth review of pre-clinical studies of spasticity in mice including the current experimental challenges for clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederique Wieters
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Cologne, Department of Neurology, Cologne, Germany
| | - Carolin Weiss Lucas
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Cologne, Center of Neurosurgery, Cologne, Germany
| | - Matthias Gruhn
- Department for Animal Physiology, Institute for Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Department for Animal Physiology, Institute for Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne
| | - Gereon R Fink
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Cologne, Department of Neurology, Cologne, Germany; Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-3), Research Center Juelich, Germany
| | - Markus Aswendt
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Cologne, Department of Neurology, Cologne, Germany; Cognitive Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-3), Research Center Juelich, Germany.
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8
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Naef V, Mero S, Fichi G, D'Amore A, Ogi A, Gemignani F, Santorelli FM, Marchese M. Swimming in Deep Water: Zebrafish Modeling of Complicated Forms of Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia and Spastic Ataxia. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1311. [PMID: 31920481 PMCID: PMC6914767 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) and hereditary ataxia (HA) are two groups of disorders characterized, respectively, by progressive dysfunction or degeneration of the pyramidal tracts (HSP) and of the Purkinje cells and spinocerebellar tracts (HA). Although HSP and HA are generally shown to have distinct clinical-genetic profiles, in several cases the clinical presentation, the causative genes, and the cellular pathways and mechanisms involved overlap between the two forms. Genetic analyses in humans in combination with in vitro and in vivo studies using model systems have greatly expanded our knowledge of spinocerebellar degenerative disorders. In this review, we focus on the zebrafish (Danio rerio), a vertebrate model widely used in biomedical research since its overall nervous system organization is similar to that of humans. A critical analysis of the literature suggests that zebrafish could serve as a powerful experimental tool for molecular and genetic dissection of both HA and HSP. The zebrafish, found to be very useful for demonstrating the causal relationship between defect and mutation, also offers a useful platform to exploit for the development of therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Naef
- Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Stella Maris, Pisa, Italy
| | - Serena Mero
- Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Stella Maris, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Gianluca Fichi
- Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Stella Maris, Pisa, Italy.,Struttura Complessa Toscana Sud (Sede Grosseto), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e Toscana M. Aleandri, Grosseto, Italy
| | - Angelica D'Amore
- Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Stella Maris, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Neurology, The F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Asahi Ogi
- Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Stella Maris, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Maria Marchese
- Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, IRCCS Stella Maris, Pisa, Italy
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9
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Complexity of Generating Mouse Models to Study the Upper Motor Neurons: Let Us Shift Focus from Mice to Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20163848. [PMID: 31394733 PMCID: PMC6720674 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor neuron circuitry is one of the most elaborate circuitries in our body, which ensures voluntary and skilled movement that requires cognitive input. Therefore, both the cortex and the spinal cord are involved. The cortex has special importance for motor neuron diseases, in which initiation and modulation of voluntary movement is affected. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is defined by the progressive degeneration of both the upper and lower motor neurons, whereas hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) are characterized mainly by the loss of upper motor neurons. In an effort to reveal the cellular and molecular basis of neuronal degeneration, numerous model systems are generated, and mouse models are no exception. However, there are many different levels of complexities that need to be considered when developing mouse models. Here, we focus our attention to the upper motor neurons, which are one of the most challenging neuron populations to study. Since mice and human differ greatly at a species level, but the cells/neurons in mice and human share many common aspects of cell biology, we offer a solution by focusing our attention to the affected neurons to reveal the complexities of diseases at a cellular level and to improve translational efforts.
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10
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Dervishi I, Ozdinler PH. Incorporating upper motor neuron health in ALS drug discovery. Drug Discov Today 2018; 23:696-703. [PMID: 29331501 PMCID: PMC5849515 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a complex disease, that affects the motor neuron circuitry. After consecutive failures in clinical trials for the past 20 years, edaravone was recently approved as the second drug for ALS. This generated excitement in the field revealed the need to improve preclinical assays for continued success. Here, we focus on the importance and relevance of upper motor neuron (UMN) pathology in ALS, and discuss how incorporation of UMN survival in preclinical assays will improve inclusion criteria for clinical trials and expedite the drug discovery effort in ALS and related motor neuron diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Dervishi
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurological Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - P Hande Ozdinler
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurological Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer's Disease Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Robert H. Lurie Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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11
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Clark JA, Yeaman EJ, Blizzard CA, Chuckowree JA, Dickson TC. A Case for Microtubule Vulnerability in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Altered Dynamics During Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:204. [PMID: 27679561 PMCID: PMC5020100 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an aggressive multifactorial disease converging on a common pathology: the degeneration of motor neurons (MNs), their axons and neuromuscular synapses. This vulnerability and dysfunction of MNs highlights the dependency of these large cells on their intracellular machinery. Neuronal microtubules (MTs) are intracellular structures that facilitate a myriad of vital neuronal functions, including activity dependent axonal transport. In ALS, it is becoming increasingly apparent that MTs are likely to be a critical component of this disease. Not only are disruptions in this intracellular machinery present in the vast majority of seemingly sporadic cases, recent research has revealed that mutation to a microtubule protein, the tubulin isoform TUBA4A, is sufficient to cause a familial, albeit rare, form of disease. In both sporadic and familial disease, studies have provided evidence that microtubule mediated deficits in axonal transport are the tipping point for MN survivability. Axonal transport deficits would lead to abnormal mitochondrial recycling, decreased vesicle and mRNA transport and limited signaling of key survival factors from the neurons peripheral synapses, causing the characteristic peripheral "die back". This disruption to microtubule dependant transport in ALS has been shown to result from alterations in the phenomenon of microtubule dynamic instability: the rapid growth and shrinkage of microtubule polymers. This is accomplished primarily due to aberrant alterations to microtubule associated proteins (MAPs) that regulate microtubule stability. Indeed, the current literature would argue that microtubule stability, particularly alterations in their dynamics, may be the initial driving force behind many familial and sporadic insults in ALS. Pharmacological stabilization of the microtubule network offers an attractive therapeutic strategy in ALS; indeed it has shown promise in many neurological disorders, ALS included. However, the pathophysiological involvement of MTs and their functions is still poorly understood in ALS. Future investigations will hopefully uncover further therapeutic targets that may aid in combating this awful disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayden A Clark
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Elise J Yeaman
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Catherine A Blizzard
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Jyoti A Chuckowree
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Tracey C Dickson
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania Hobart, TAS, Australia
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12
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Gautam M, Jara JH, Sekerkova G, Yasvoina MV, Martina M, Özdinler PH. Absence of alsin function leads to corticospinal motor neuron vulnerability via novel disease mechanisms. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:1074-87. [PMID: 26755825 PMCID: PMC4764190 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the ALS2 gene result in early-onset amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paraplegia and juvenile primary lateral sclerosis, suggesting prominent upper motor neuron involvement. However, the importance of alsin function for corticospinal motor neuron (CSMN) health and stability remains unknown. To date, four separate alsin knockout (AlsinKO) mouse models have been generated, and despite hopes of mimicking human pathology, none displayed profound motor function defects. This, however, does not rule out the possibility of neuronal defects within CSMN, which is not easy to detect in these mice. Detailed cellular analysis of CSMN has been hampered due to their limited numbers and the complex and heterogeneous structure of the cerebral cortex. In an effort to visualize CSMN in vivo and to investigate precise aspects of neuronal abnormalities in the absence of alsin function, we generated AlsinKO-UeGFP mice, by crossing AlsinKO and UCHL1-eGFP mice, a CSMN reporter line. We find that CSMN display vacuolated apical dendrites with increased autophagy, shrinkage of soma size and axonal pathology even in the pons region. Immunocytochemistry coupled with electron microscopy reveal that alsin is important for maintaining cellular cytoarchitecture and integrity of cellular organelles. In its absence, CSMN displays selective defects both in mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. UCHL1-eGFP mice help understand the underlying cellular factors that lead to CSMN vulnerability in diseases, and our findings reveal unique importance of alsin function for CSMN health and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gabriella Sekerkova
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - Marco Martina
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - P Hande Özdinler
- Department of Neurology and, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center and Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer's Disease Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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Patten SA, Armstrong GAB, Lissouba A, Kabashi E, Parker JA, Drapeau P. Fishing for causes and cures of motor neuron disorders. Dis Model Mech 2014; 7:799-809. [PMID: 24973750 PMCID: PMC4073270 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.015719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor neuron disorders (MNDs) are a clinically heterogeneous group of neurological diseases characterized by progressive degeneration of motor neurons, and share some common pathological pathways. Despite remarkable advances in our understanding of these diseases, no curative treatment for MNDs exists. To better understand the pathogenesis of MNDs and to help develop new treatments, the establishment of animal models that can be studied efficiently and thoroughly is paramount. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is increasingly becoming a valuable model for studying human diseases and in screening for potential therapeutics. In this Review, we highlight recent progress in using zebrafish to study the pathology of the most common MNDs: spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). These studies indicate the power of zebrafish as a model to study the consequences of disease-related genes, because zebrafish homologues of human genes have conserved functions with respect to the aetiology of MNDs. Zebrafish also complement other animal models for the study of pathological mechanisms of MNDs and are particularly advantageous for the screening of compounds with therapeutic potential. We present an overview of their potential usefulness in MND drug discovery, which is just beginning and holds much promise for future therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunmoogum A Patten
- Department of Neuroscience, FRQS Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and CRCHUM, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Gary A B Armstrong
- Department of Neuroscience, FRQS Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and CRCHUM, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Alexandra Lissouba
- Department of Neuroscience, FRQS Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and CRCHUM, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Edor Kabashi
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, Centre de Recherche, CHU Pitié-Salpétrière, 75013 Paris, France
| | - J Alex Parker
- Department of Neuroscience, FRQS Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and CRCHUM, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Pierre Drapeau
- Department of Neuroscience, FRQS Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and CRCHUM, University of Montréal, Montréal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada.
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14
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15
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Takayama Y, Itoh RE, Tsuyama T, Uemura T. Age-dependent deterioration of locomotion inDrosophila melanogasterdeficient in the homologue ofamyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2. Genes Cells 2014; 19:464-77. [DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Takayama
- Graduate School of Biostudies; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Reina E. Itoh
- Graduate School of Biostudies; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Taiichi Tsuyama
- Graduate School of Biostudies; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Tadashi Uemura
- Graduate School of Biostudies; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
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16
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Cook DR, Rossman KL, Der CJ. Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors: regulators of Rho GTPase activity in development and disease. Oncogene 2013; 33:4021-35. [PMID: 24037532 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The aberrant activity of Ras homologous (Rho) family small GTPases (20 human members) has been implicated in cancer and other human diseases. However, in contrast to the direct mutational activation of Ras found in cancer and developmental disorders, Rho GTPases are activated most commonly in disease by indirect mechanisms. One prevalent mechanism involves aberrant Rho activation via the deregulated expression and/or activity of Rho family guanine nucleotide exchange factors (RhoGEFs). RhoGEFs promote formation of the active GTP-bound state of Rho GTPases. The largest family of RhoGEFs is comprised of the Dbl family RhoGEFs with 70 human members. The multitude of RhoGEFs that activate a single Rho GTPase reflects the very specific role of each RhoGEF in controlling distinct signaling mechanisms involved in Rho activation. In this review, we summarize the role of Dbl RhoGEFs in development and disease, with a focus on Ect2 (epithelial cell transforming squence 2), Tiam1 (T-cell lymphoma invasion and metastasis 1), Vav and P-Rex1/2 (PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 (phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-triphosphate)-dependent Rac exchanger).
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Cook
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - K L Rossman
- 1] Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA [2] Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - C J Der
- 1] Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA [2] Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA [3] Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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17
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DeGeer J, Lamarche-Vane N. Rho GTPases in neurodegeneration diseases. Exp Cell Res 2013; 319:2384-94. [PMID: 23830879 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2013.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Rho GTPases are molecular switches that modulate multiple intracellular signaling processes by means of various effector proteins. As a result, Rho GTPase activities are tightly spatiotemporally regulated in order to ensure homeostasis within the cell. Though the roles of Rho GTPases during neural development have been well documented, their participation during neurodegeneration has been far less characterized. Herein we discuss our current knowledge of the role and function of Rho GTPases and regulators during neurodegeneration, and highlight their potential as targets for therapeutic intervention in common neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan DeGeer
- McGill University, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Montreal, QC, Canada H3A 0C7
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18
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Cozzolino M, Pesaresi MG, Gerbino V, Grosskreutz J, Carrì MT. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: new insights into underlying molecular mechanisms and opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:1277-330. [PMID: 22413952 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in the pathogenic mechanisms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a late-onset progressive degeneration of motor neurons. The discovery of new genes associated with the familial form of the disease, along with a deeper insight into pathways already described for this disease, has led scientists to reconsider previous postulates. While protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, defective axonal transport, and excitotoxicity have not been dismissed, they need to be re-examined as contributors to the onset or progression of ALS in the light of the current knowledge that the mutations of proteins involved in RNA processing, apparently unrelated to the previous "old partners," are causative of the same phenotype. Thus, newly envisaged models and tools may offer unforeseen clues on the etiology of this disease and hopefully provide the key to treatment.
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19
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Dibaj P, Zschüntzsch J, Steffens H, Scheffel J, Göricke B, Weishaupt JH, Le Meur K, Kirchhoff F, Hanisch UK, Schomburg ED, Neusch C. Influence of methylene blue on microglia-induced inflammation and motor neuron degeneration in the SOD1(G93A) model for ALS. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43963. [PMID: 22952827 PMCID: PMC3428282 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in SOD1 cause hereditary variants of the fatal motor neuron disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Pathophysiology of the disease is non-cell-autonomous, with toxicity deriving also from glia. In particular, microglia contribute to disease progression. Methylene blue (MB) inhibits the effect of nitric oxide, which mediates microglial responses to injury. In vivo 2P-LSM imaging was performed in ALS-linked transgenic SOD1(G93A) mice to investigate the effect of MB on microglia-mediated inflammation in the spinal cord. Local superfusion of the lateral spinal cord with MB inhibited the microglial reaction directed at a laser-induced axon transection in control and SOD1(G93A) mice. In vitro, MB at high concentrations inhibited cytokine and chemokine release from microglia of control and advanced clinical SOD1(G93A) mice. Systemic MB-treatment of SOD1(G93A) mice at early preclinical stages significantly delayed disease onset and motor dysfunction. However, an increase of MB dose had no additional effect on disease progression; this was unexpected in view of the local anti-inflammatory effects. Furthermore, in vivo imaging of systemically MB-treated mice also showed no alterations of microglia activity in response to local lesions. Thus although systemic MB treatment had no effect on microgliosis, instead, its use revealed an important influence on motor neuron survival as indicated by an increased number of lumbar anterior horn neurons present at the time of disease onset. Thus, potentially beneficial effects of locally applied MB on inflammatory events contributing to disease progression could not be reproduced in SOD1(G93A) mice via systemic administration, whereas systemic MB application delayed disease onset via neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payam Dibaj
- Max-Planck-Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany.
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Abstract
Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) is a neuron-derived trophic molecule that supports axoglial and neuromuscular development through several alternatively spliced isoforms; its possible role in the pathogenesis and progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is not known. We analyzed the relationship of NRG1 isoform expression to glial cell activation and motor neuron loss in spinal cords of ALS patients and during disease progression in the superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) ALS mouse model. Microgliosis, astrocytosis, and motor neuron loss were observed in the ventral horns in ALS patients and were increased in SOD1 mice along with disease progression. Type III (membrane-bound) NRG1 expression was reduced in parallel with motor neuron loss, but Type I (secreted) NRG1 expression was increased and was associated with glial activation. Increased NRG1 receptor activation was observed on activated microglia in both ALS patients and in SOD1 mice. This activation was observed at the time of disease onset and before upregulation of NRG1 gene expression in the mice. The downregulation of membrane-bound Type III NRG1 forms may reflect motor neuron loss, but increased signaling by secreted-type NRG1 isoforms could contribute to disease pathogenesis through glial cell activation. NRG1 might, therefore, represent a novel therapeutic target against disease progression in ALS.
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Corticospinal motor neurons and related subcerebral projection neurons undergo early and specific neurodegeneration in hSOD1G⁹³A transgenic ALS mice. J Neurosci 2011; 31:4166-77. [PMID: 21411657 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4184-10.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by predominant vulnerability and central degeneration of both corticospinal/corticobulbar motor neurons (CSMN; "upper motor neurons") in cerebral cortex, and spinal/bulbar motor neurons (SMN; "lower motor neurons") in spinal cord and brainstem. Increasing evidence indicates broader cerebral cortex pathology in cognitive, sensory, and association systems in select cases. It remains unclear whether widely accepted transgenic ALS models, in particular hSOD1(G93A) mice, undergo degeneration of CSMN and molecularly/developmentally closely related populations of nonmotor projection neurons [e.g., other subcerebral projection neurons (SCPN)], and whether potential CSMN/SCPN degeneration is specific and early. This relative lack of knowledge regarding upper motor neuron pathology in these ALS model mice has hindered both molecular-pathophysiologic understanding of ALS and their use toward potential CSMN therapeutic approaches. Here, using a combination of anatomic, cellular, transgenic labeling, and newly available neuronal subtype-specific molecular analyses, we identify that CSMN and related nonmotor SCPN specifically and progressively degenerate in hSOD1(G93A) mice. Degeneration starts quite early and presymptomatically, by postnatal day 30. Other neocortical layers, cortical interneurons, and other projection neuron populations, even within layer V, are not similarly affected. Nonneuronal pathology in neocortex (activated astroglia and microglia) is consistent with findings in human ALS cortex and in affected mouse and human spinal cord. These results indicate previously unknown neuron type-specific vulnerability of CSMN/sensory and association SCPN, and identify that characteristic dual CSMN and SMN degeneration is conserved in hSOD1(G93A) mice. These results provide a foundation for detailed investigation of CSMN/SCPN vulnerability and toward potential CSMN therapeutics in ALS.
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Dibaj P, Steffens H, Zschüntzsch J, Kirchhoff F, Schomburg ED, Neusch C. In vivo imaging reveals rapid morphological reactions of astrocytes towards focal lesions in an ALS mouse model. Neurosci Lett 2011; 497:148-51. [PMID: 21539893 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2011] [Revised: 04/03/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Pathophysiology of the motoneuron disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is non-cell-autonomous. In mouse models of familiar ALS, neurotoxicity is derived not only from mutant motor neurons but also from mutant neighbouring glial cells. In vivo imaging by two-photon laser-scanning microscopy was used to study rapid morphological reactions of astroglial cells towards laser-induced axonal transection in ALS-linked transgenic SOD1(G93A) mice. In the affected lateral spinal cord, mutated astroglial cells extended branches towards injured axons within a time frame of minutes to hours post lesion while in control animals astrocytes lack any rapid morphological alteration within the studied time frame. This suggests that astrocytes partially contribute to the rapid response of non-neuronal cells to acute axonal lesions in ALS mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payam Dibaj
- Max-Planck-Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
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23
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Dibaj P, Steffens H, Zschüntzsch J, Nadrigny F, Schomburg ED, Kirchhoff F, Neusch C. In Vivo imaging reveals distinct inflammatory activity of CNS microglia versus PNS macrophages in a mouse model for ALS. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17910. [PMID: 21437247 PMCID: PMC3060882 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the enzyme superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) cause hereditary variants
of the fatal motor neuronal disease Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
Pathophysiology of the disease is non-cell-autonomous: neurotoxicity is derived
not only from mutant motor neurons but also from mutant neighbouring
non-neuronal cells. In vivo imaging by two-photon
laser-scanning microscopy was used to compare the role of
microglia/macrophage-related neuroinflammation in the CNS and PNS using
ALS-linked transgenic SOD1G93A mice. These mice contained labeled
projection neurons and labeled microglia/macrophages. In the affected lateral
spinal cord (in contrast to non-affected dorsal columns), different phases of
microglia-mediated inflammation were observed: highly reactive microglial cells
in preclinical stages (in 60-day-old mice the reaction to axonal transection was
∼180% of control) and morphologically transformed microglia that have
lost their function of tissue surveillance and injury-directed response in
clinical stages (reaction to axonal transection was lower than 50% of
control). Furthermore, unlike CNS microglia, macrophages of the PNS lack any
substantial morphological reaction while preclinical degeneration of peripheral
motor axons and neuromuscular junctions was observed. We present in
vivo evidence for a different inflammatory activity of microglia
and macrophages: an aberrant neuroinflammatory response of microglia in the CNS
and an apparently mainly neurodegenerative process in the PNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payam Dibaj
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max-Planck-Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
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24
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Genetic rodent models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:348765. [PMID: 21274268 PMCID: PMC3022221 DOI: 10.1155/2011/348765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the selective death of motor neurons in the motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. A large number of rodent models are available that show motor neuron death and a progressive motor phenotype that is more or less reminiscent of what occurs in patients. These rodent models contain genes with spontaneous or induced mutations or (over) express different (mutant) genes. Some of these models have been of great value to delineate potential pathogenic mechanisms that cause and/or modulate selective motor neuron degeneration. In addition, these genetic rodent models play a crucial role in testing and selecting potential therapeutics that can be used to treat ALS and/or other motor neuron disorders. In this paper, we give a systematic overview of the most important genetic rodent models that show motor neuron degeneration and/or develop a motor phenotype. In addition, we discuss the value and limitations of the different models and conclude that it remains a challenge to find more and better rodent models based on mutations in new genes causing ALS.
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Abstract
Axons depend critically on axonal transport both for supplying materials and for communicating with cell bodies. This chapter looks at each activity, asking what aspects are essential for axon survival. Axonal transport declines in neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis, and in normal ageing, but whether all cargoes are equally affected and what limits axon survival remains unclear. Cargoes can be differentially blocked in some disorders, either individually or in groups. Each missing protein cargo results in localized loss-of-function that can be partially modeled by disrupting the corresponding gene, sometimes with surprising results. The axonal response to losing specific proteins also depends on the rates of protein turnover and on whether the protein can be locally synthesized. Among cargoes with important axonal roles are components of the PI3 kinase, Mek/Erk, and Jnk signaling pathways, which help to communicate with cell bodies and to regulate axonal transport itself. Bidirectional trafficking of Bdnf, NT-3, and other neurotrophic factors contribute to intra- and intercellular signaling, affecting the axon's cellular environment and survival. Finally, several adhesion molecules and gangliosides are key determinants of axon survival, probably by mediating axon-glia interactions. Thus, failure of long-distance intracellular transport can deprive axons of one, few, or many cargoes. This can lead to axon degeneration either directly, through the absence of essential axonal proteins, or indirectly, through failures in communication with cell bodies and nonneuronal cells.
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26
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Blackstone C, O'Kane CJ, Reid E. Hereditary spastic paraplegias: membrane traffic and the motor pathway. Nat Rev Neurosci 2011; 12:31-42. [PMID: 21139634 PMCID: PMC5584382 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Voluntary movement is a fundamental way in which animals respond to, and interact with, their environment. In mammals, the main CNS pathway controlling voluntary movement is the corticospinal tract, which encompasses connections between the cerebral motor cortex and the spinal cord. Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a group of genetic disorders that lead to a length-dependent, distal axonopathy of fibres of the corticospinal tract, causing lower limb spasticity and weakness. Recent work aimed at elucidating the molecular cell biology underlying the HSPs has revealed the importance of basic cellular processes — especially membrane trafficking and organelle morphogenesis and distribution— in axonal maintenance and degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig Blackstone
- Neurogenetics Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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27
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Nassif M, Matus S, Castillo K, Hetz C. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathogenesis: a journey through the secretory pathway. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 13:1955-89. [PMID: 20560784 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2009.2991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common adult-onset motoneuron degenerative disease characterized by the selective loss of motoneurons in the spinal ventral horn, most brainstem nuclei, and the cerebral cortex. Although approximately 90% of ALS cases are sporadic (sALS), analyses of familial ALS (fALS)-causative genes have generated relevant insight into molecular events involved in the pathology. Here we overview an emerging concept indicating the occurrence of secretory pathway stress in the disease process. These alterations include a failure in the protein folding machinery at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), engagement of the unfolded protein response (UPR), modifications of the Golgi apparatus network, impaired vesicular trafficking, inhibition of protein quality control mechanisms, oxidative damage to ER proteins, and sustained activation of degradative pathways such as autophagy. A common feature predicted for most of these alterations is abnormal protein homeostasis associated with the accumulation of misfolded proteins at the ER, possibly leading to chronic ER stress and neuronal dysfunction. Signs of ER stress are observed even during presymptomatic stages in fALS mouse models, and pharmacological strategies to alleviate protein misfolding slow disease progression. Because the secretory pathway stress occurs in both sALS and several forms of fALS, it may offer a unique common target for possible therapeutic strategies to treat this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Nassif
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences , Faculty of Medicine, NEMO Millennium Nucleus, Santiago, Chile
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28
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Harvey BK, Richie CT, Hoffer BJ, Airavaara M. Transgenic animal models of neurodegeneration based on human genetic studies. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2010; 118:27-45. [PMID: 20931247 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-010-0476-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Accepted: 08/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The identification of genes linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease (HD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) has led to the development of animal models for studying mechanism and evaluating potential therapies. None of the transgenic models developed based on disease-associated genes have been able to fully recapitulate the behavioral and pathological features of the corresponding disease. However, there has been enormous progress made in identifying potential therapeutic targets and understanding some of the common mechanisms of neurodegeneration. In this review, we will discuss transgenic animal models for AD, ALS, HD and PD that are based on human genetic studies. All of the diseases discussed have active or complete clinical trials for experimental treatments that benefited from transgenic models of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon K Harvey
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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29
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Hadano S, Yoshii Y, Otomo A, Kunita R, Suzuki-Utsunomiya K, Pan L, Kakuta S, Iwasaki Y, Iwakura Y, Ikeda JE. Genetic background and gender effects on gross phenotypes in congenic lines of ALS2/alsin-deficient mice. Neurosci Res 2010; 68:131-6. [PMID: 20558214 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2010] [Revised: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 06/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in human ALS2 account for several juvenile recessive motor neuron diseases (MNDs). To understand the molecular basis underlying motor dysfunction in ALS2-linked MNDs, several lines of Als2(-/-) mice with a mixed genetic background were thus far generated, and their phenotypes were thoroughly characterized. However, several phenotypic discrepancies among different Als2-deficient lines became evident. To investigate whether genetic backgrounds are associated with such discrepancies, we here generated congenic lines of Als2(-/-) mice on two different genetic backgrounds; C57BL/6 (B6) and FVB/N (FVB), and investigated their gross phenotypes. Both B6 and FVB congenic lines were viable and fertile with no evidences for obvious abnormalities. There were no differences in growth curves between wild-type and Als2(-/-) mice on each genetic background. Remarkably, Als2(-/-) mice on a FVB, but not a B6, background exhibited a shorter life span than wild-type litters. Further, B6 female, but not male, Als2(-/-) mice showed a significantly lower spontaneous rearing activity than wild-type litters. These genetic background- and/or gender-specific findings suggest the presence of modifiers for life span and motor activities in Als2(-/-) mice. These congenic mice should provide a useful means to understand the molecular and genetic basis for variable expression of pathological phenotypes in MNDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Hadano
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Centre, Tokai University Graduate School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan.
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Tovar-y-Romo LB, Santa-Cruz LD, Tapia R. Experimental models for the study of neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Mol Neurodegener 2009; 4:31. [PMID: 19619317 PMCID: PMC2720968 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-4-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 07/20/2009] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease of unknown cause, characterized by the selective and progressive death of both upper and lower motoneurons, leading to a progressive paralysis. Experimental animal models of the disease may provide knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms and allow the design and testing of therapeutic strategies, provided that they mimic as close as possible the symptoms and temporal progression of the human disease. The principal hypotheses proposed to explain the mechanisms of motoneuron degeneration have been studied mostly in models in vitro, such as primary cultures of fetal motoneurons, organotypic cultures of spinal cord sections from postnatal rodents and the motoneuron-like hybridoma cell line NSC-34. However, these models are flawed in the sense that they do not allow a direct correlation between motoneuron death and its physical consequences like paralysis. In vivo, the most widely used model is the transgenic mouse that bears a human mutant superoxide dismutase 1, the only known cause of ALS. The major disadvantage of this model is that it represents about 2%-3% of human ALS. In addition, there is a growing concern on the accuracy of these transgenic models and the extrapolations of the findings made in these animals to the clinics. Models of spontaneous motoneuron disease, like the wobbler and pmn mice, have been used aiming to understand the basic cellular mechanisms of motoneuron diseases, but these abnormalities are probably different from those occurring in ALS. Therefore, the design and testing of in vivo models of sporadic ALS, which accounts for >90% of the disease, is necessary. The main models of this type are based on the excitotoxic death of spinal motoneurons and might be useful even when there is no definitive demonstration that excitotoxicity is a cause of human ALS. Despite their difficulties, these models offer the best possibility to establish valid correlations between cellular alterations and motor behavior, although improvements are still necessary in order to produce a reliable and integrative model that accurately reproduces the cellular mechanisms of motoneuron degeneration in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis B Tovar-y-Romo
- División de Neurociencias, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, AP 70-253, 04510-México, D.F., México
| | - Luz Diana Santa-Cruz
- División de Neurociencias, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, AP 70-253, 04510-México, D.F., México
| | - Ricardo Tapia
- División de Neurociencias, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, AP 70-253, 04510-México, D.F., México
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Cosker KE, Courchesne SL, Segal RA. Action in the axon: generation and transport of signaling endosomes. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2009; 18:270-5. [PMID: 18778772 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2008.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2008] [Revised: 08/11/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Neurons extend axonal processes over long distances, necessitating efficient transport mechanisms to convey target-derived neurotrophic survival signals from remote distal axons to cell bodies. Retrograde transport, powered by dynein motors, supplies cell bodies with survival signals in the form of 'signaling endosomes'. In this review, we will discuss new advances in our understanding of the motor proteins that bind to and move signaling components in a retrograde direction and discuss mechanisms that might specify distinct neuronal responses to spatially restricted neurotrophin signals. Disruption of retrograde transport leads to a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting the role of retrograde transport of signaling endosomes for axonal maintenance and the importance of efficient transport for neuronal survival and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina E Cosker
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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32
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Jacquier A, Bellouze S, Blanchard S, Bohl D, Haase G. Astrocytic protection of spinal motor neurons but not cortical neurons against loss of Als2/alsin function. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:2127-39. [PMID: 19304783 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Three neurodegenerative diseases affecting upper and/or lower motor neurons have been associated with loss of ALS2/Alsin function: juvenile amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, primary lateral sclerosis and infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paralysis. The distinct neuronal vulnerability and the role of glia in these diseases remains, however, unclear. We here demonstrate that alsin-depleted spinal motor neurons can be rescued from defective survival and axon growth by co-cultured astrocytes. The astrocytic rescue is mediated by a soluble protective factor rather than by cellular contact. Cortical neurons are intrinsically as vulnerable to alsin depletion as spinal motor neurons but cannot be rescued by co-cultured astrocytes. To our knowledge, these data provide the first example of non-cell-autonomous glial effects in a recessive form of motor neuron disease and a potential rationale for the higher vulnerability of upper versus lower motor neurons in ALS2/Alsin-linked disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Jacquier
- Laboratory of Motor Neuron Disease Modeling and Therapy, Institut de Biologie du Développement de Marseille Luminy, Université Aix-Marseille, Case 907, Parc scientifique de Luminy, F-13273 Marseille cedex 09, France
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33
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Soares DC, Barlow PN, Porteous DJ, Devon RS. An interrupted beta-propeller and protein disorder: structural bioinformatics insights into the N-terminus of alsin. J Mol Model 2008; 15:113-22. [PMID: 19023603 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-008-0381-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2008] [Accepted: 11/05/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Defects in the human ALS2 gene, which encodes the 1,657-amino-acid residue protein alsin, are linked to several related motor neuron diseases. We created a structural model for the N-terminal 690-residue region of alsin through comparative modelling based on regulator of chromosome condensation 1 (RCC1). We propose that this alsin region contains seven RCC1-like repeats in a seven-bladed beta-propeller structure. The propeller is formed by a double clasp arrangement containing two segments (residues 1-218 and residues 525-690). The 306-residue insert region, predicted to lie within blade 5 and to be largely disordered, is poorly conserved across species. Surface patches of evolutionary conservation probably indicate locations of binding sites. Both disease-causing missense mutations-Cys157Tyr and Gly540Glu-are buried in the propeller and likely to be structurally disruptive. This study aids design of experimental studies by highlighting the importance of construct length, will enhance interpretation of protein-protein interactions, and enable rational site-directed mutagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh C Soares
- Medical Genetics Section, Molecular Medicine Centre, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Crewe Road, Edinburgh EH42XU, UK.
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34
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Le Forestier N, Meininger V. [Primary lateral sclerosis: the era of international diagnosis criteria]. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2008; 165:415-29. [PMID: 18842276 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2008.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2008] [Revised: 06/06/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Since Charcot's first description, primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) remains a rare clinical syndrome, a neuropathological phenotype of motor system degeneration. In turn, PLS has been described as belonging to the large spectrum of motoneuron diseases or to the diverse degenerative diseases of the nervous system. Clinically, it is characterized by progressive pyramidal involvement in patients who present insidiously progressive gait disorders and, on examination, have relatively symmetrical lower limb weakness, increased muscle tone, pathologic hyper-reflexia, and exaggerated extensor plantar responses. Pinprick, light touch, and temperature sensations are preserved. Viewed in another way, PLS mimicks progressive hereditary spastic paraparesis (HSP) and the "central" phenotype of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). PLS is considered "idiopathic" and, depending on the presence or absence of similarly affected family members, the syndrome of idiopathic HSP and ALS are labeled "hereditary" or "apparently sporadic". The juvenile form of PLS and early age at onset in cases of HSP complicate our understanding of the relationship between these two disorders. Guidelines for diagnosis and genetic counseling have been published for HSP and ALS. Recently, since the first international workshop, guidelines for diagnosis of PLS propose a classification system, e.g. for heterogeneous HSP into "pure PLS", complicated or "plus PLS", symptomatic PLS and upper motor neuron-dominant ALS. However, when reviewing known cases of PLS drawn from the literature, rigorous retrospective application of these new PLS criteria raises an unanswered question: does pure PLS exist?
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Affiliation(s)
- N Le Forestier
- Pôle des maladies du système nerveux, fédération de neurologie, hôpital de la Salpêtrière, 47-83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75651 Paris cedex 13, France.
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35
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Cai H, Shim H, Lai C, Xie C, Lin X, Yang WJ, Chandran J. ALS2/alsin knockout mice and motor neuron diseases. NEURODEGENER DIS 2008; 5:359-66. [PMID: 18714162 DOI: 10.1159/000151295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2007] [Accepted: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal recessive mutations in the ALS2 gene have been linked to juvenile-onset amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS2), primary lateral sclerosis and juvenile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paraplegia. Except for two recently identified missense mutations, all other mutations in the ALS2 gene lead to a premature stop codon and likely abrogate all the potential functions of alsin, the protein encoded by the ALS2 gene. To study the pathologic mechanisms of ALS2 deficiency, four different lines of ALS2 knockout (ALS2(-/-)) mice have been generated by independent groups. The loss of ALS2/alsin does not have a drastic effect on the survival or function of motor neurons in mice. However, subtle deficits observed in the behavior and pathology of these mice have aided in our understanding of the relationship between alsin and motor neuron dysfunction. In this review, we summarize and reconcile major findings of ALS2(-/-) mice and attempt to place these results within the larger context of modeling recessive movement disorders in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaibin Cai
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-3707, USA.
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36
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Gros-Louis F, Kriz J, Kabashi E, McDearmid J, Millecamps S, Urushitani M, Lin L, Dion P, Zhu Q, Drapeau P, Julien JP, Rouleau GA. Als2 mRNA splicing variants detected in KO mice rescue severe motor dysfunction phenotype in Als2 knock-down zebrafish. Hum Mol Genet 2008; 17:2691-702. [PMID: 18558633 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddn171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Recessive ALS2 mutations are linked to three related but slightly different neurodegenerative disorders: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, hereditary spastic paraplegia and primary lateral sclerosis. To investigate the function of the ALS2 encoded protein, we generated Als2 knock-out (KO) mice and zAls2 knock-down zebrafish. The Als2(-/-) mice lacking exon 2 and part of exon 3 developed mild signs of neurodegeneration compatible with axonal transport deficiency. In contrast, zAls2 knock-down zebrafish had severe developmental abnormalities, swimming deficits and motor neuron perturbation. We identified, by RT-PCR, northern and western blotting novel Als2 transcripts in mouse central nervous system. These Als2 transcripts were present in Als2 null mice as well as in wild-type littermates and some rescued the zebrafish phenotype. Thus, we speculate that the newly identified Als2 mRNA species prevent the Als2 KO mice from developing severe neurodegenerative disease and might also regulate the severity of the motor neurons phenotype observed in ALS2 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francois Gros-Louis
- Department of Medicine, Center for Excellence in Neuromics, CHUM Research Center, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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37
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Mutant SOD1 in cell types other than motor neurons and oligodendrocytes accelerates onset of disease in ALS mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:7594-9. [PMID: 18492803 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0802556105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dominant mutations in ubiquitously expressed superoxide dismutase (SOD1) cause familial ALS by provoking premature death of adult motor neurons. To test whether mutant damage to cell types beyond motor neurons is required for the onset of motor neuron disease, we generated chimeric mice in which all motor neurons and oligodendrocytes expressed mutant SOD1 at a level sufficient to cause fatal, early-onset motor neuron disease when expressed ubiquitously, but did so in a cellular environment containing variable numbers of non-mutant, non-motor neurons. Despite high-level mutant expression within 100% of motor neurons and oligodendrocytes, in most of these chimeras, the presence of WT non-motor neurons substantially delayed onset of motor neuron degeneration, increasing disease-free life by 50%. Disease onset is therefore non-cell autonomous, and mutant SOD1 damage within cell types other than motor neurons and oligodendrocytes is a central contributor to initiation of motor neuron degeneration.
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38
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ALS2/alsin deficiency in neurons leads to mild defects in macropinocytosis and axonal growth. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 370:87-92. [PMID: 18358238 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.01.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Loss of function mutations in the ALS2 gene account for a number of juvenile/infantile recessive motor neuron diseases, indicating that its gene product, ALS2/alsin, plays a crucial role in maintenance and survival for a subset of neurons. ALS2 acts as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for the small GTPase Rab5 and is implicated in endosome dynamics in cells. However, the role of ALS2 in neurons remains unclear. To elucidate the neuronal ALS2 functions, we investigate cellular phenotypes of ALS2-deficient primary cultured neurons derived from Als2-knockout (KO) mice. Here, we show that ALS2 deficiency results not only in the delay of axon outgrowth in hippocampal neurons, but also in a decreased level of the fluid phase horseradish peroxidase (HRP) uptake, which represents the activity for macropinocytic endocytosis, in cortical neurons. Thus, ALS2 may act as a modulator in neuronal differentiation and/or development through regulation of membrane dynamics.
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39
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Cozzolino M, Ferri A, Carrì MT. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: from current developments in the laboratory to clinical implications. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008; 10:405-43. [PMID: 18370853 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2007.1760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a late-onset progressive degeneration of motor neurons occurring both as a sporadic and a familial disease. The etiology of ALS remains unknown, but one fifth of instances are due to specific gene defects, the best characterized of which is point mutations in the gene coding for Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1). Because sporadic and familial ALS affect the same neurons with similar pathology, it is hoped that understanding these gene defects will help in devising therapies effective in both forms. A wealth of evidence has been collected in rodents made transgenic for mutant SOD1, which represent the best available models for familial ALS. Mutant SOD1 likely induces selective vulnerability of motor neurons through a combination of several mechanisms, including protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, cytoskeletal abnormalities and defective axonal transport, excitotoxicity, inadequate growth factor signaling, and inflammation. Damage within motor neurons is enhanced by noxious signals originating from nonneuronal neighboring cells, where mutant SOD1 induces an inflammatory response that accelerates disease progression. The clinical implication of these findings is that promising therapeutic approaches can be derived from multidrug treatments aimed at the simultaneous interception of damage in both motor neurons and nonmotor neuronal cells.
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40
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Génétique des maladies du motoneurone. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2008; 164:115-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2007.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2007] [Revised: 09/25/2007] [Accepted: 10/21/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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41
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Millecamps S, Julien JP. [Dysfunction of axonal transport in neuropathies and motor neuron diseases]. Med Sci (Paris) 2008; 24:65-71. [PMID: 18198113 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/200824165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory neurons and motor neurons are particularly vulnerable to axonal transport defects due to the length of their axons. Several mutations have recently been identified in genes coding for cytoskeletal or motor proteins as causative factors in various neurodegenerative diseases. This review synthesizes the main defects found in inherited peripheral neuropathies and in motor neuron diseases as well as in mouse models of these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Millecamps
- CNRS UMR7091, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 83 boulevard de l'Hôpital, Paris, France
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42
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Kato S. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis models and human neuropathology: similarities and differences. Acta Neuropathol 2008; 115:97-114. [PMID: 18026741 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-007-0308-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2007] [Revised: 09/27/2007] [Accepted: 09/29/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that primarily involves the motor neuron system. The author initially summarizes the principal features of human ALS neuropathology, and subsequently describes in detail ALS animal models mainly from the viewpoint of pathological similarities and differences. ALS animal models in this review include strains of rodents that are transgenic for superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), ALS2 knockout mice, and mice that are transgenic for cytoskeletal abnormalities. Although the neuropathological results obtained from human ALS autopsy cases are valuable and important, almost all of such cases represent only the terminal stage. This makes it difficult to clarify how and why ALS motor neurons are impaired at each clinical stage from disease onset to death, and as a consequence, human autopsy cases alone yield little insight into potential therapies for ALS. Although ALS animal models cannot replicate human ALS, in order to compensate for the shortcomings of studies using human ALS autopsy samples, researchers must inevitably rely on ALS animal models that can yield very important information for clarifying the pathogenesis of ALS in humans and for the establishment of reliable therapy. Of course, human ALS and all ALS animal models share one most important similarity in that both exhibit motor neuron degeneration/death. This important point of similarity has shed much light on the pathomechanisms of the motor neuron degeneration/death at the cellular and molecular levels that would not have been appreciated if only human ALS autopsy samples had been available. On the basis of the aspects covered in this review, it can be concluded that ALS animal models can yield very important information for clarifying the pathogenesis of ALS in humans and for the establishment of reliable therapy only in combination with detailed neuropathological data obtained from human ALS autopsy cases.
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43
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Praline J, Corcia P. Genetica della sclerosi laterale amiotrofica. Neurologia 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1634-7072(08)70528-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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Detmer SA, Vande Velde C, Cleveland DW, Chan DC. Hindlimb gait defects due to motor axon loss and reduced distal muscles in a transgenic mouse model of Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2A. Hum Mol Genet 2007; 17:367-75. [PMID: 17959936 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddm314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease type 2A is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder affecting long peripheral motor and sensory nerves. The most common clinical sign is weakness in the lower legs and feet, associated with muscle atrophy and gait defects. The axonopathy in CMT2A is caused by mutations in Mitofusin 2 (Mfn2), a mitochondrial GTPase necessary for the fusion of mitochondria. Most Mfn2 disease alleles dominantly aggregate mitochondria upon expression in cultured fibroblasts and neurons. To determine whether this property is related to neuronal pathogenesis, we used the HB9 promoter to drive expression of a pathogenic allele, Mfn2(T105M), in the motor neurons of transgenic mice. Transgenic mice develop key clinical signs of CMT2A disease in a dosage-dependent manner. They have a severe gait defect due to an inability to dorsi-flex the hindpaws. Consequently, affected animals drag their hindpaws while walking and support themselves on the hind knuckles, rather than the soles. This distal muscle weakness is associated with reduced numbers of motor axons in the motor roots and severe reduction of the anterior calf muscles. Many motor neurons from affected animals show improper mitochondrial distribution, characterized by tight clusters of mitochondria within axons. This transgenic line recapitulates key motor features of CMT2A and provides a system to dissect the function of mitochondria in the axons of mammalian motor neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Detmer
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, MC114-96, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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45
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Schaefer MKE, Schmalbruch H, Buhler E, Lopez C, Martin N, Guénet JL, Haase G. Progressive motor neuronopathy: a critical role of the tubulin chaperone TBCE in axonal tubulin routing from the Golgi apparatus. J Neurosci 2007; 27:8779-89. [PMID: 17699660 PMCID: PMC6672183 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1599-07.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Axonal degeneration represents one of the earliest pathological features in motor neuron diseases. We here studied the underlying molecular mechanisms in progressive motor neuronopathy (pmn) mice mutated in the tubulin-specific chaperone TBCE. We demonstrate that TBCE is a peripheral membrane-associated protein that accumulates at the Golgi apparatus. In pmn mice, TBCE is destabilized and disappears from the Golgi apparatus of motor neurons, and microtubules are lost in distal axons. The axonal microtubule loss proceeds retrogradely in parallel with the axonal dying back process. These degenerative changes are inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by transgenic TBCE complementation that restores TBCE expression at the Golgi apparatus. In cultured motor neurons, the pmn mutation, interference RNA-mediated TBCE depletion, and brefeldin A-mediated Golgi disruption all compromise axonal tubulin routing. We conclude that motor axons critically depend on axonal tubulin routing from the Golgi apparatus, a process that involves TBCE and possibly other tubulin chaperones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael K. E. Schaefer
- Inserm, Unité 29, Equipe Avenir, 13273 Marseille, France
- Aix Marseille Université, Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée, 13284 Marseille, France
| | | | - Emmanuelle Buhler
- Inserm, Unité 29, Equipe Avenir, 13273 Marseille, France
- Aix Marseille Université, Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée, 13284 Marseille, France
| | - Catherine Lopez
- Inserm, Unité 29, Equipe Avenir, 13273 Marseille, France
- Aix Marseille Université, Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée, 13284 Marseille, France
| | | | | | - Georg Haase
- Inserm, Unité 29, Equipe Avenir, 13273 Marseille, France
- Aix Marseille Université, Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée, 13284 Marseille, France
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46
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Martin LJ. Transgenic mice with human mutant genes causing Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis provide common insight into mechanisms of motor neuron selective vulnerability to degeneration. Rev Neurosci 2007; 18:115-36. [PMID: 17593875 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro.2007.18.2.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A variety of gene mutations can cause familial forms of Parkinson's disease (PD) or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Mutations in the synaptic protein alpha-synuclein (alpha-Syn) cause PD. Mutations in the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) cause ALS. The mechanisms of human mutant a-Syn and SOD1 toxicity to neurons are not known. Transgenic (tg) mice expressing human mutant alpha-Syn or SOD1 develop profound fatal neurologic disease characterized by progressive motor deficits, paralysis, and neurodegeneration. Ala-53-->Thr (A53T)-mutant alpha-Syn and Gly-93-->Ala (G93A)-mutant SOD1 tg mice develop prominent mitochondrial abnormalities. Interestingly, although nigral neurons in A53T mice are relatively preserved, spinal motor neurons (MNs) undergo profound degeneration. In A53T mice, mitochondria degenerate in neurons, and complex IV activity is reduced. Furthermore, mitochondria in neurons develop DNA breaks and have p53 targeted to the outer membrane. Nitrated a-Syn accumulates in degenerating MNs in A53T mice. mSOD1 mouse MNs accumulate mitochondria from the axon terminals and generate higher levels of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species than MNs in control mice. mSOD1 mouse MNs accumulate DNA single-strand breaks prior to double-strand breaks occurring in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Nitrated and aggregated cytochrome c oxidase subunit-I and nitrated SOD2 accumulate in mSOD1 mouse spinal cord. Mitochondria in mSOD1 mouse MNs accumulate NADPH diaphorase and inducible NOS (iNOS)-like immunoreactivity, and iNOS gene deletion significantly extends the lifespan of G93A-mSOD1 mice. Mitochondrial changes develop long before symptoms emerge. These experiments reveal that mitochondrial nitrative stress and perturbations in mitochondrial trafficking may be antecedents of neuronal cell death in animal models of PD and ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee J Martin
- Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School ofMedicine, Baltimore, MD 21205-2196, USA.
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47
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Chandran J, Ding J, Cai H. Alsin and the molecular pathways of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Mol Neurobiol 2007; 36:224-31. [PMID: 17955197 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-007-0034-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2006] [Accepted: 02/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Autosomal recessive mutations in the ALS2 gene lead to a clinical spectrum of motor dysfunction including juvenile onset amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS2), primary lateral sclerosis, and hereditary spastic paraplegia. The 184-kDa alsin protein, encoded by the full-length ALS2 gene, contains three different guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor-like domains, which may play a role in the etiology of the disease. Multiple in vitro biochemical and cell biology assays suggest that alsin dysfunction affects endosome trafficking through a Rab5 small GTPase family-mediated mechanism. Four ALS2-deficient mouse models have been generated by different groups and used to study the behavioral and pathological impact of alsin deficiency. These mouse models largely fail to recapitulate hallmarks of motor neuron disease, but the subtle deficits that are observed in behavior and pathology have aided in our understanding of the relationship between alsin and motor dysfunction. In this review, we summarize recent clinical and molecular reports regarding alsin and attempt to place these results within the larger context of motor neuron disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayanth Chandran
- Unit of Transgenesis, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A116, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-3707, USA
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48
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Hadano S, Kunita R, Otomo A, Suzuki-Utsunomiya K, Ikeda JE. Molecular and cellular function of ALS2/alsin: Implication of membrane dynamics in neuronal development and degeneration. Neurochem Int 2007; 51:74-84. [PMID: 17566607 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2007.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2007] [Revised: 04/18/2007] [Accepted: 04/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
ALS2 is a causative gene for a juvenile autosomal recessive form of motor neuron diseases (MNDs), including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2 (ALS2), juvenile primary lateral sclerosis, and infantile-onset ascending hereditary spastic paralysis. These disorders are characterized by ascending degeneration of the upper motor neurons with or without lower motor neuron involvement. Thus far, a total of 12 independent ALS2 mutations, which include a small deletion, non-sense mutation, or missense mutation spreading widely across the entire coding sequence, are reported. They are predicted to result in either premature termination of translation or substitution of an evolutionarily conserved amino acid. Thus, a loss of functions in the ALS2-coded protein accounts for motor dysfunction and/or degeneration in the ALS2-linked MNDs. The ALS2 gene encodes a novel 184kDa protein of 1657 amino acids, ALS2 or alsin, comprising three predicted guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domains: the N-terminal RCC1-like domain, the central Dbl homology and pleckstrin homology (DH/PH) domains, and the C-terminal vacuolar protein sorting 9 (VPS9) domain. In addition, eight consecutive membrane occupation and recognition nexus (MORN) motifs are noted in the region between DH/PH and VPS9 domains. ALS2 activates Rab5 small GTPase and involves in endosome/membrane trafficking and fusions in the cells, and also promotes neurite outgrowth in neuronal cultures. Further, a neuroprotective role for ALS2 against cytotoxicity; i.e., the mutant Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)-mediated toxicity, oxidative stress, and excitotoxicity, has recently been implied. This review outlines current understandings of the molecular and cellular functions of ALS2 and its related proteins on safeguarding the integrity of motor neurons, and sheds light on the molecular pathogenesis of MNDs as well as other conditions of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Hadano
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan
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49
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Kunita R, Otomo A, Mizumura H, Suzuki-Utsunomiya K, Hadano S, Ikeda JE. The Rab5 Activator ALS2/alsin Acts as a Novel Rac1 Effector through Rac1-activated Endocytosis. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:16599-611. [PMID: 17409386 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m610682200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the ALS2 gene cause a number of recessive motor neuron diseases, indicating that the ALS2 protein (ALS2/alsin) is vital for motor neurons. ALS2 acts as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for Rab5 (Rab5GEF) and is involved in endosome dynamics. However, the spatiotemporal regulation of the ALS2-mediated Rab5 activation is unclear. Here we identified an upstream activator for ALS2 and showed a functional significance of the ALS2 activation in endosome dynamics. ALS2 preferentially interacts with activated Rac1. In the cells activated Rac1 recruits cytoplasmic ALS2 to membrane ruffles and subsequently to nascent macropinosomes via Rac1-activated macropinocytosis. At later endocytic stages macropinosomal ALS2 augments fusion of the ALS2-localized macropinosomes with the transferrin-positive endosomes, depending on the ALS2-associated Rab5GEF activity. These results indicate that Rac1 promotes the ALS2 membranous localization, thereby rendering ALS2 active via Rac1-activated endocytosis. Thus, ALS2 is a novel Rac1 effector and is involved in Rac1-activated macropinocytosis. All together, loss of ALS2 may perturb macropinocytosis and/or the following membrane trafficking, which gives rise to neuronal dysfunction in the ALS2-linked motor neuron diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Kunita
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan
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Gonzalez de Aguilar JL, Echaniz-Laguna A, Fergani A, René F, Meininger V, Loeffler JP, Dupuis L. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: all roads lead to Rome. J Neurochem 2007; 101:1153-60. [PMID: 17250677 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04408.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most frequent adult-onset motor neuron disease characterized by degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons, generalized weakness and muscle atrophy. Most cases of ALS appear sporadically but some forms of the disease result from mutations in the gene encoding the antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1). Several other mutated genes have also been found to predispose to ALS including, among others, one that encodes the regulator of axonal retrograde transport dynactin. As all roads lead to the proverbial Rome, we discuss here how distinct molecular pathways may converge to the same final result that is motor neuron death. We critically review the basic research on SOD1-linked ALS to propose a pioneering model of a 'systemic' form of the disease, causally involving multiple cell types, either neuronal or non-neuronal. Contrasting this, we also postulate that other neuron-specific defects, as those triggered by dynactin dysfunction, may account for a primary motor neuron disease that would represent 'pure' neuronal forms of ALS. Identifying different disease subtypes is an unavoidable step toward the understanding of the physiopathology of ALS and will hopefully help to design specific treatments for each subset of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose-Luis Gonzalez de Aguilar
- Inserm, U692, Laboratoire de Signalisations Moléculaires et Neurodégénérescence, Université Louis Pasteur, Faculté de Médecine, UMRS692, Strasbourg, France
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