Polyproline as a Minimal Antifreeze Protein Mimic That Enhances the Cryopreservation of Cell Monolayers

Post-thaw application of ROCK-inhibitors increases cryopreserved T-cell yield

Emerging cell-based therapies such as CAR-T (Chimeric Antigen Receptor T) cells require cryopreservation to store and deliver intact and viable cells. Conventional cryopreservation formulations use DMSO to mitigate cold-induced damage, but do not address all the biochemical damage mechanisms induced by cold stress, such as programmed cell death (apoptosis). Rho-associated protein kinases (ROCK) are a key component of apoptosis, and their activation contributes to apoptotic blebbing. Here we demonstrate that the ROCK inhibitor fasudil hydrochloride, when supplemented into the thawing medium of T-cells increases the overall yield of healthy cells. Cell yield was highest using 5 or 10% DMSO cryopreservation solutions, with lower DMSO concentrations (2.5%) leading to significant physical damage to the cells. After optimisation, the post-thaw yield of T-cells increased by approximately 20% using this inhibitor, a significant increase in the context of a therapy. Flow cytometry analysis did not show a significant reduction in the relative percentage of cell populations undergoing apoptosis, but there was a small reduction in the 8 hours following thawing. Fasudil also led to a reduction in reactive oxygen species. Addition of fasudil into the cryopreservation solution, followed by dilution (rather than washing) upon thaw also gave a 20% increase in cell yield, demonstrating how this could be deployed in a cell-therapy context, without needing to change clinical thawing routines. Overall, this shows that modulation of post-thaw biochemical pathways which lead to apoptosis (or other degradative pathways) can be effectively targeted as a strategy to increase T-cell yield and function post-thaw.

Chemically Induced Extracellular Ice Nucleation Reduces Intracellular Ice Formation Enabling 2D and 3D Cellular Cryopreservation

3D cell assemblies such as spheroids reproduce the in vivo state more accurately than traditional 2D cell monolayers and are emerging as tools to reduce or replace animal testing. Current cryopreservation methods are not optimized for complex cell models, hence they are not easily banked and not as widely used as 2D models. Here we use soluble ice nucleating polysaccharides to nucleate extracellular ice and dramatically improve spheroid cryopreservation outcomes. This protects the cells beyond using DMSO alone, and with the major advantage that the nucleators function extracellularly and hence do not need to permeate the 3D cell models. Critical comparison of suspension, 2D and 3D cryopreservation outcomes demonstrated that warm-temperature ice nucleation reduces the formation of (fatal) intracellular ice, and in the case of 2/3D models this reduces propagation of ice between adjacent cells. This demonstrates that extracellular chemical nucleators could revolutionize the banking and deployment of advanced cell models.

Cryopreservation of Liver-Cell Spheroids with Macromolecular Cryoprotectants

Spheroids are a powerful tool for basic research and to reduce or replace in vivo (animal) studies but are not routinely banked nor shared. Here, we report the successful cryopreservation of hepatocyte spheroids using macromolecular (polyampholyte) cryoprotectants supplemented into dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) solutions. We demonstrate that a polyampholyte significantly increases post-thaw recovery, minimizes membrane damage related to cryo-injury, and remains in the extracellular space making it simple to remove post-thaw. In a model toxicology challenge, the thawed spheroids matched the performance of fresh spheroids. F-actin staining showed that DMSO-only cryopreserved samples had reduced actin polymerization, which the polyampholyte rescued, potentially linked to intracellular ice formation. This work may facilitate access to off-the-shelf and ready-to-use frozen spheroids, without the need for in-house culturing. Readily accessible 3-D cell models may also reduce the number of in vivo experiments.

Synthesis of Poly(2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl methacrylate) via Oxidation of Poly(2-(methylthio)ethyl methacrylate): Evaluation of the Sulfoxide Side Chain on Cryopreservation

Conventional cryopreservation solutions rely on the addition of organic solvents such as DMSO or glycerol, but these do not give full recovery for all cell types, and innovative cryoprotectants may address damage pathways which these solvents do not protect against. Macromolecular cryoprotectants are emerging, but there is a need to understand their structure-property relationships and mechanisms of action. Here we synthesized and investigated the cryoprotective behavior of sulfoxide (i.e., "DMSO-like") side-chain polymers, which have been reported to be cryoprotective using poly(ethylene glycol)-based polymers. We also wanted to determine if the polarized sulfoxide bond (S⁺O^- character) introduces cryoprotective effects, as this has been seen for mixed-charge cryoprotective polyampholytes, whose mechanism of action is not yet understood. Poly(2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl methacrylate) was synthesized by RAFT polymerization of 2-(methylthio)ethyl methacrylate and subsequent oxidation to sulfoxide. A corresponding N-oxide polymer was also prepared and characterized: (poly(2-(dimethylamineoxide)ethyl methacrylate). Ice recrystallization inhibition assays and differential scanning calorimetry analysis show that the sulfoxide side chains do not modulate the frozen components during cryopreservation. In cytotoxicity assays, it was found that long-term (24 h) exposure of the polymers was not tolerated by cells, but shorter (30 min) incubation times, which are relevant for cryopreservation, were tolerated. It was also observed that overoxidation to the sulfone significantly increased the cytotoxicity, and hence, these materials require a precision oxidation step to be deployed. In suspension cell cryopreservation investigations, the polysulfoxides did not increase cell recovery 24 h post-thaw. These results show that unlike hydrophilic backboned polysulfides, which can aid cryopreservation, the installation of the sulfoxide group onto a polymer does not necessarily bring cryoprotective properties, highlighting the challenges of developing and discovering macromolecular cryoprotectants.

Memory Effect in Thermoresponsive Proline-based Polymers

We report that synthetic polymers consisting of L-proline monomer units exhibit temperature-driven aggregation in water with unprecedented hysteresis. This protein-like behavior is robust and governed by the chirality of the proline units. It paves the way to new processes, driven by either temperature or ionic strength changes, such as a simple "with memory" thermometer.

Assay-ready Cryopreserved Cell Monolayers Enabled by Macromolecular Cryoprotectants

Cell monolayers underpin the discovery and screening of new drugs and allow for fundamental studies of cell biology and disease. However, current cryopreservation technologies do not allow cells to be stored frozen while attached to tissue culture plastic. Hence, cells must be thawed from suspension, cultured for several days or weeks, and finally transferred into multiwell plates for the desired application. This inefficient process consumes significant time handling cells, rather than conducting biomedical research or other value-adding activities. Here, we demonstrate that a synthetic macromolecular cryoprotectant enables the routine, reproducible, and robust cryopreservation of biomedically important cell monolayers, within industry-standard tissue culture multiwell plates. The cells are simply thawed with media and placed in an incubator ready to use within 24 h. Post-thaw cell recovery values were >80% across three cell lines with low well-to-well variance. The cryopreserved cells retained healthy morphology, membrane integrity, proliferative capacity, and metabolic activity; showed marginal increases in apoptotic cells; and responded well to a toxicological challenge using doxorubicin. These discoveries confirm that the cells are “assay-ready” 24 h after thaw. Overall, we show that macromolecular cryoprotectants can address a long-standing cryobiological challenge and offers the potential to transform routine cell culture for biomedical discovery.

Degradable Polyampholytes from Radical Ring-Opening Copolymerization Enhance Cellular Cryopreservation

Macromolecular cryoprotectants based on polyampholytes are showing promise as supplemental cryoprotectants alongside conventional DMSO-based freezing. Here we exploit radical ring-opening (ter)polymerization to access ester-containing cryoprotective polyampholytes, which were shown to be degradable. Using a challenging cell monolayer cryopreservation model, the degradable polyampholytes were found to enhance post-thaw recovery when supplemented into DMSO. This demonstrates that degradable macromolecular cryoprotectants can be developed for application in biotechnology and biomedicine.

Minimalistic ice recrystallisation inhibitors based on phenylalanine

Ice recrystallisation inhibition (IRI) is typically associated with ice binding proteins, but polymers and other mimetics are emerging. Here we identify phenylalanine as a minimalistic, yet potent, small-molecule IRI capable of inhibiting ice growth at just 1 mg mL^-1. Facial amphiphilicity is shown to be a crucial structural feature, with para-substituents enhancing (hydrophobic) or decreasing (hydrophilic) IRI activity. Both amino and acid groups were found to be essential. Solution-phase self-assembly of Phenylalanine was not observed, but the role of self-assembly at the ice/water interface could not be ruled out as a contributing factor.

Antifreeze proteins and their biomimetics for cell cryopreservation: Mechanism, function and application-A review

Cell-based therapy is a promising technology for intractable diseases and health care applications, in which cryopreservation has become an essential procedure to realize the production of therapeutic cells. Ice recrystallization is the major factor that affects the post-thaw viability of cells. As a typical series of biomacromolecules with ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity, antifreeze proteins (AFPs) have been employed in cell cryopreservation. Meanwhile, synthesized materials with IRI activity have emerged in the name of biomimetics of AFPs to expand their availability and practicality. However, fabrication of AFPs mimetics is in a chaotic period. There remains little commonality among different AFPs mimetics, then it is difficult to set guidelines on their design. With no doubt, a comprehensive understanding on the antifreezing mechanism of AFPs in molecular level will enable us to rebuild the function of AFPs, and provide convenience to clarify the relationship between structure and function of these early stage biomimetics. In this review, we would discuss those previously reported biomimetics to summarize their structure characteristics concerning the IRI activity and attempt to develop a roadmap for guiding the design of novel AFPs mimetics.

Polymer Self-Assembly Induced Enhancement of Ice Recrystallization Inhibition

Ice binding proteins modulate ice nucleation/growth and have huge (bio)technological potential. There are few synthetic materials that reproduce their function, and rational design is challenging due to the outstanding questions about the mechanisms of ice binding, including whether ice binding is essential to reproduce all their macroscopic properties. Here we report that nanoparticles obtained by polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) inhibit ice recrystallization (IRI) despite their constituent polymers having no apparent activity. Poly(ethylene glycol), poly(dimethylacrylamide), and poly(vinylpyrrolidone) coronas were all IRI-active when assembled into nanoparticles. Different core-forming blocks were also screened, revealing the core chemistry had no effect. These observations show ice binding domains are not essential for macroscopic IRI activity and suggest that the size, and crowding, of polymers may increase the IRI activity of "non-active" polymers. It was also discovered that poly(vinylpyrrolidone) particles had ice crystal shaping activity, indicating this polymer can engage ice crystal surfaces, even though on its own it does not show any appreciable ice recrystallization inhibition. Larger (vesicle) nanoparticles are shown to have higher ice recrystallization inhibition activity compared to smaller (sphere) particles, whereas ice nucleation activity was not found for any material. This shows that assembly into larger structures can increase IRI activity and that increasing the "size" of an IRI does not always lead to ice nucleation. This nanoparticle approach offers a platform toward ice-controlling soft materials and insight into how IRI activity scales with molecular size of additives.

Proline pre-conditioning of cell monolayers increases post-thaw recovery and viability by distinct mechanisms to other osmolytes

Cell cryopreservation is an essential tool for drug toxicity/function screening and transporting cell-based therapies, and is essential in most areas of biotechnology. There is a challenge, however, associated with the cryopreservation of cells in monolayer format (attached to tissue culture substrates) which gives far lower cell yields (<20% typically) compared to suspension freezing. Here we investigate the mechanisms by which the protective osmolyte l-proline enhances cell-monolayer cryopreservation. Pre-incubating A549 cells with proline, prior to cryopreservation in monolayers, increased post-thaw cell yields two-fold, and the recovered cells grow faster compared to cells cryopreserved using DMSO alone. Further increases in yield were achieved by adding polymeric ice recrystallization inhibitors, which gave limited benefit in the absence of proline. Mechanistic studies demonstrated a biochemical, rather than biophysical (i.e. not affecting ice growth) mode of action. It was observed that incubating cells with proline (before freezing) transiently reduced the growth rate of the cells, which was not seen with other osmolytes (betaine and alanine). Removal of proline led to rapid growth recovery, suggesting that proline pre-conditions the cells for cold stress, but with no impact on downstream cell function. Whole cell proteomics did not reveal a single pathway or protein target but rather cells appeared to be primed for a stress response in multiple directions, which together prepare the cells for freezing. These results support the use of proline alongside standard conditions to improve post-thaw recovery of cell monolayers, which is currently considered impractical. It also demonstrates that a chemical biology approach to discovering small molecule biochemical modulators of cryopreservation may be possible, to be used alongside traditional (solvent) based cryoprotectants.

Cell cryopreservation is an essential tool for transporting cell-based therapies, and is essential in most areas of biotechnology. Here proline pre-incubation prior to cell monolayer cryopreservation is explored, increasing post-thaw yields.

Unveiling Cells' Local Environment during Cryopreservation by Correlative In Situ Spatial and Thermal Analyses

Cryopreservation is the only fully established procedure to extend the lifespan of living cells and tissues, a key to activities spanning from fundamental biology to clinical practice. Despite its prevalence and impact, the central aspects of cryopreservation, such as the cell's physicochemical environment during freezing, remain elusive. Here we address that question by coupling in situ microscopic directional freezing to visualize cells and their surroundings during freezing with the freezing-medium phase diagram. We extract the freezing-medium spatial distribution in cryopreservation, providing a tool to describe the cell vicinity at any point during freezing. We show that two major events define the cells' local environment over time: the interaction with the moving ice front and the interaction with the vitreous moving front, a term we introduce here. Our correlative strategy may be applied to cells relevant to clinical research and practice and may help in the design of new cryoprotective media based on local physicochemical cues.