O-O bond activation in heterobimetallic peroxides: synthesis of the peroxide [LNi(mu,eta2:eta2-O2)K] and its conversion into a bis(mu-hydroxo) nickel zinc complex

Redox Processes Involving Oxygen: The Surprising Influence of Redox-Inactive Lewis Acids

Metalloenzymes with heteromultimetallic active sites perform chemical reactions that control several biogeochemical cycles. Transformations catalyzed by such enzymes include dioxygen generation and reduction, dinitrogen reduction, and carbon dioxide reduction-instrumental transformations for progress in the context of artificial photosynthesis and sustainable fertilizer production. While the roles of the respective metals are of interest in all these enzymatic transformations, they share a common factor in the transfer of one or multiple redox equivalents. In light of this feature, it is surprising to find that incorporation of redox-inactive metals into the active site of such an enzyme is critical to its function. To illustrate, the presence of a redox-inactive Ca2+ center is crucial in the Oxygen Evolving Complex, and yet particularly intriguing given that the transformation catalyzed by this cluster is a redox process involving four electrons. Therefore, the effects of redox inactive metals on redox processes-electron transfer, oxygen- and hydrogen-atom transfer, and O-O bond cleavage and formation reactions-mediated by transition metals have been studied extensively. Significant effects of redox inactive metals have been observed on these redox transformations; linear free energy correlations between Lewis acidity and the redox properties of synthetic model complexes are observed for several reactions. In this Perspective, these effects and their relevance to multielectron processes will be discussed.

Peroxide-Selective Reduction of O2 at Redox-Inactive Rare-Earth(III) Triflates Generates an Ambiphilic Peroxide

Metal peroxides are key species involved in a range of critical biological and synthetic processes. Rare-earth (group III and the lanthanides; Sc, Y, La-Lu) peroxides have been implicated as reactive intermediates in catalysis; however, reactivity studies of isolated, structurally characterized rare-earth peroxides have been limited. Herein, we report the peroxide-selective (93-99% O₂^2-) reduction of dioxygen (O₂) at redox-inactive rare-earth triflates in methanol using a mild metallocene reductant, decamethylferrocene (Fc*). The first molecular praseodymium peroxide ([Pr^III₂(O₂^2-)(18C6)₂(EG)₂][OTf]₄; 18C6 = 18-crown-6, EG = ethylene glycol, ^-OTf = ^-O₃SCF₃; 2-Pr) was isolated and characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and NMR spectroscopy. 2-Pr displays high thermal stability (120 °C, 50 mTorr), is protonated by mild organic acids [pK_a1(MeOH) = 5.09 ± 0.23], and engages in electrophilic (e.g., oxygen atom transfer) and nucleophilic (e.g., phosphate-ester cleavage) reactivity. Our mechanistic studies reveal that the rate of oxygen reduction is dictated by metal-ion accessibility, rather than Lewis acidity, and suggest new opportunities for differentiated reactivity of redox-inactive metal ions by leveraging weak metal-ligand binding events preceding electron transfer.

Mechanistic Studies for Pd(II)(O2) Reduction Generating Pd(0) and H2O: Formation of Pd(OH)2 as a Key Intermediate

Molecular oxygen (O₂) remains to be an ideal yet underutilized feedstock for the oxidative transformation of organic substrates and renewable energy systems such as fuel cells. Palladium (Pd) has shown particular promise in enabling these applications. The present study describes a Pd-mediated O₂ reduction to water via C-H activation of 9,10-dihydroanthracene (DHA) by a Pd(II) η²-peroxo complex 1O₂. The reaction yields stoichiometric anthracene and Pd(0) product 1 and is notable in two respects. First, plots of concentrations of the reaction participants over time have distinctly sigmoidal shapes, indicating that conversion accelerates over time and implying autocatalysis. Second, the reaction proceeds via a genuine monometallic Pd(II) dihydroxide 1(OH)₂ directly observed to grow and decay as an intermediate. Confirming its role as an intermediate, the dihydroxide 1(OH)₂ was found to mediate C-H oxidation of DHA on par in activity with the peroxo compound 1O₂. Mechanistic studies with density functional theory (DFT) calculations suggested that both 1O₂ and 1(OH)₂ react with DHA by hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and that autocatalysis in the 1O₂ reaction results from oxidative addition of the initial Pd(II) complex 1O₂ to the Pd(0) product 1. This reaction forms a transient bis(μ-oxo) Pd(II) dimer 1O₂1 that is more active in the HAT oxidation of DHA than the initial 1O₂.

Calcium-Ion Binding Mediates the Reversible Interconversion of Cis and Trans Peroxido Dicopper Cores

Coupled dinuclear copper oxygen cores (Cu₂ O₂ ) featured in type III copper proteins (hemocyanin, tyrosinase, catechol oxidase) are vital for O₂ transport and substrate oxidation in many organisms. μ-1,2-cis peroxido dicopper cores (^C P) have been proposed as key structures in the early stages of O₂ binding in these proteins; their reversible isomerization to other Cu₂ O₂ cores are directly relevant to enzyme function. Despite the relevance of such species to type III copper proteins and the broader interest in the properties and reactivity of bimetallic ^C P cores in biological and synthetic systems, the properties and reactivity of ^C P Cu₂ O₂ species remain largely unexplored. Herein, we report the reversible interconversion of μ-1,2-trans peroxido (^T P) and ^C P dicopper cores. Ca^II mediates this process by reversible binding at the Cu₂ O₂ core, highlighting the unique capability for metal-ion binding events to stabilize novel reactive fragments and control O₂ activation in biomimetic systems.

Experimental Electrochemical Potentials of Nickel Complexes

Nickel-catalyzed cross-coupling and photoredox catalytic reactions has found widespread utilities in organic synthesis. Redox processes are key intermediate steps in many catalytic cycles. As a result, it is pertinent to measure and document the redox potentials of various nickel species as precatalysts, catalysts, and intermediates. The redox potentials of a transition-metal complex are governed by its oxidation state, ligand, and the solvent environment. This article tabulates experimentally measured redox potentials of nickel complexes supported on common ligands under various conditions. This review article serves as a versatile tool to help synthetic organic and organometallic chemists evaluate the feasibility and kinetics of redox events occurring at the nickel center, when designing catalytic reactions and preparing nickel complexes.

1 Introduction

1.1 Scope

1.2 Measurement of Formal Redox Potentials

1.3 Redox Potentials in Nonaqueous Solution

2 Redox Potentials of Nickel Complexes

2.1 Redox Potentials of (Phosphine)Ni Complexes

2.2 Redox Potentials of (Nitrogen)Ni Complexes

2.3 Redox Potentials of (NHC)Ni Complexes

Abnormal N-heterocyclic Carbene Based Ni(II) π-allyl Complex towards Molecular Oxygen Activation

Abnormal N-heterocyclic carbene (aNHC) based Ni(II) π-allyl complexes (3 and 4) were synthesized starting from a Ni(0) precursor. These complexes were characterized by NMR spectroscopy, single-crystal X-ray crystallography (4) and elemental analysis data. The underlying mechanism for the formation of Ni(II) η³ -allyl complexes from a Ni(0) precursor on treatment with a free abnormal N-heterocyclic carbene in absence of any external additive or oxidant was unraveled. Later, complex 3 was exposed to O₂ gas under ambient pressure resulting in molecular oxygen activation to form a μ-hydroxo bridged Ni(II) dimer.

Generation and Reactivity of a NiIII2(μ-1,2-peroxo) Complex

High-valent transition metal-oxo, -peroxo, and -superoxo complexes are crucial intermediates in both biological and synthetic oxidation of organic substrates, water oxidation, and oxygen reduction. While high-valent oxygenated complexes of Mn, Fe, Co, and Cu are increasingly well-known, high-valent oxygenated Ni complexes are comparatively rarer. Herein we report the isolation of such an unusual high-valent species in a thermally unstable Ni^III₂(μ-1,2-peroxo) complex, which has been characterized using single-crystal X-ray diffraction and X-ray absorption, NMR, and UV-vis spectroscopies. Reactivity studies show that this complex is stable toward dissociation of oxygen but reacts with simple nucleophiles and electrophiles.

Utilising an anilido-imino ligand to stabilise zinc-phosphanide complexes: reactivity and fluorescent properties

A series of zinc complexes bearing the anilido-imino ligand [(o-C6H4{N(C6H3iPr2)}{C(CH3) = NC6H3iPr2})] [(LDipp)ZnX] has been generated. This includes two amide derivatives, [(LDipp)Zn(N{SiMe3}2)] and [(LDipp)Zn(NH{Dipp})] and two phosphanide derivatives, [(LDipp)ZnPCy2] and [(LDipp)ZnPPh2]. The chemistry of the phosphanide complexes towards chalcogens was examined, with sulfur, selenium and tellurium oxidising the phosphorus centre of the dicylohexylphosphanide complex [(LDipp)ZnPCy2] to form [(LDipp)Zn(E)2PCy2] (E = S, Se, Te). Addition of tellurium to the diphenylphosphanide complex [(LDipp)ZnPPh2] results in formation of Ph2PPPh2 and [(LDipp)ZnTeZn(LDipp)]. The absorption and emission properties of these complexes was examined and the quantum yields are highly dependent upon the non-ancillary ligand X.

Boron-based stepwise dioxygen activation with 1,4,2,5-diazadiborinine

Activation of dioxygen (O2) by 1,4,2,5-diazadiborinine 1 is reported. Two boron centers in 1 undergo a formal [4 + 2] cycloaddition with O2 at room temperature affording a bicyclo[2.2.2] molecule 2 featuring a B-O-O-B unit. Treatment of 2 with an additional equivalent of 1 leads to the cleavage of the O-O bond in 2 concomitant with the formation of two B-O bonds to yield 4 involving the extremely rare B4C2N2O2 ten-membered rings. A series of these reactions demonstrate the stepwise scission of the O[double bond, length as m-dash]O π-bond and the O-O σ-bond of O2.

Activation of Dioxygen at a Lewis Acidic Nickel(II) Complex: Characterization of a Metastable Organoperoxide Complex

In metal-mediated O₂ activation, nickel(II) compounds hardly play a role, but recently it has been shown that enzymes can use nickel(II) for O₂ activation. Now a low-coordinate Lewis acidic nickel(II) complex has been synthesized that reacts with O₂ to give a nickel(II) organoperoxide, as proposed for the enzymatic system. Its formation was studied further by UV/Vis absorption spectroscopy, leading to the observation of a short-lived intermediate that proved to be reactive in both oxygen atom transfer and hydrogen abstraction reactions, while the peroxide efficiently transfers O atoms. Both for the enzyme and for the functional model, the key to O₂ activation is proposed to represent a concomitant electron shift from the substrate/co-ligand.

Complexes of Ni(i): a “rare” oxidation state of growing importance

The synthesis and diverse structures, reactivity (small molecule activation and catalysis) and magnetic properties of Ni(i) complexes are summarized.

Oxygen activation by mononuclear Mn, Co, and Ni centers in biology and synthetic complexes

The active sites of metalloenzymes that catalyze O₂-dependent reactions generally contain iron or copper ions. However, several enzymes are capable of activating O₂ at manganese or nickel centers instead, and a handful of dioxygenases exhibit activity when substituted with cobalt. This minireview summarizes the catalytic properties of oxygenases and oxidases with mononuclear Mn, Co, or Ni active sites, including oxalate-degrading oxidases, catechol dioxygenases, and quercetin dioxygenase. In addition, recent developments in the O₂ reactivity of synthetic Mn, Co, or Ni complexes are described, with an emphasis on the nature of reactive intermediates featuring superoxo-, peroxo-, or oxo-ligands. Collectively, the biochemical and synthetic studies discussed herein reveal the possibilities and limitations of O₂ activation at these three "overlooked" metals.

Spectroscopically Characterized Synthetic Mononuclear Nickel-Oxygen Species

Iron, copper, and manganese are the predominant metals found in oxygenases that perform efficient and selective hydrocarbon oxidations and for this reason, a large number of the corresponding metal-oxygen species has been described. However, in recent years nickel has been found in the active site of enzymes involved in oxidation processes, in which nickel-dioxygen species are proposed to play a key role. Owing to this biological relevance and to the existence of different catalytic protocols that involve the use of nickel catalysts in oxidation reactions, there is a growing interest in the detection and characterization of nickel-oxygen species relevant to these processes. In this Minireview the spectroscopically/structurally characterized synthetic superoxo, peroxo, and oxonickel species that have been reported to date are described. From these studies it becomes clear that nickel is a very promising metal in the field of oxidation chemistry with still unexplored possibilities.

Group 5 chemistry supported by β-diketiminate ligands

β-Diketiminate (BDI) ligands are widely used supporting ligands in modern organometallic chemistry and are capable of stabilizing various metal complexes in multiple oxidation states and coordination environments.

Changing the chemical and physical properties of high valent heterobimetallic bis-(μ-oxido) Cu–Ni complexes by ligand effects

Two new heterobimetallic [LNiO₂Cu(RPY2)]⁺ (RPY2 = N-substituted bis 2-pyridyl(ethylamine) ligands with R = indane, 3a or R = Me, 3b) complexes have been spectroscopically trapped at low temperatures.

Heterotrimetallic sandwich complexes supported by sulfonamido ligands

Co^II complexes bearing sulfonamido ligands derived from tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (H₆tren) assemble into complex architectures in the presence of Group II ions through interactions between the Group II ion and the sulfonyl oxygens.

Redox-inactive metal ions modulate the reactivity and oxygen release of mononuclear non-haem iron(III)-peroxo complexes

Redox-inactive metal ions that function as Lewis acids play pivotal roles in modulating the reactivity of oxygen-containing metal complexes and metalloenzymes, such as the oxygen-evolving complex in photosystem II and its small-molecule mimics. Here we report the synthesis and characterization of non-haem iron(III)-peroxo complexes that bind redox-inactive metal ions, (TMC)Fe(III)-(μ,η(2):η(2)-O2)-M(n+) (M(n+) = Sr(2+), Ca(2+), Zn(2+), Lu(3+), Y(3+) and Sc(3+); TMC, 1,4,8,11-tetramethyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane). We demonstrate that the Ca(2+) and Sr(2+) complexes showed similar electrochemical properties and reactivities in one-electron oxidation or reduction reactions. However, the properties and reactivities of complexes formed with stronger Lewis acidities were found to be markedly different. Complexes that contain Ca(2+) or Sr(2+) ions were oxidized by an electron acceptor to release O2, whereas the release of O2 did not occur for complexes that bind stronger Lewis acids. We discuss these results in the light of the functional role of the Ca(2+) ion in the oxidation of water to dioxygen by the oxygen-evolving complex.

A family of [Ni8] cages templated by μ6-peroxide from dioxygen activation

[Ni₈] cages templated by η³:η³:μ₆-O₂²⁻ from O₂ activation: the ligand found oxidized within the cages.

A Mononuclear Nonheme Iron(III)-Peroxo Complex Binding Redox-Inactive Metal Ions

Redox-inactive metal ions that function as Lewis acids play pivotal roles in modulating reactivities of oxygen-containing metal complexes in a variety of biological and biomimetic reactions, including dioxygen activation/formation and functionalization of organic substrates. Mononuclear nonheme iron(III)-peroxo species are invoked as active oxygen intermediates in the catalytic cycles of dioxygen activation by nonheme iron enzymes and their biomimetic compounds. Here, we report mononuclear nonheme iron(III)-peroxo complexes binding redox-inactive metal ions, [(TMC)FeIII(O2)]+-M3+ (M3+ = Sc3+ and Y3+; TMC = 1,4,8,11-tetramethyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane), which are characterized spectroscopically as a 'side-on' iron(III)-peroxo complex binding a redox-inactive metal ion, (TMC)FeIII-(μ,η2:η2-O2)-M3+ (2-M). While an iron(III)-peroxo complex, [(TMC)FeIII(O2)]+, does not react with electron donors (e.g., ferrocene), one-electron reduction of the iron(III)-peroxo complexes binding redox-inactive metal ions occurs readily upon addition of electron donors, resulting in the generation of an iron(IV)-oxo complex, [(TMC)FeIV(O)]2+ (4), via heterolytic O-O bond cleavage of the peroxide ligand. The rates of the conversion of 2-M to 4 are found to depend on the Lewis acidity of the redox-inactive metal ions and the oxidation potential of the electron donors. We have also determined the fundamental electron-transfer properties of 2-M, such as the reduction potential and the reorganization energy in electron-transfer reaction. Based on the results presented herein, we have proposed a mechanism for the reactions of 2-M and electron donors; the reduction of 2-M to the reduced species, (TMC)FeII-(O2)-M3+ (2'-M), is the rate-determining step, followed by heterolytic O-O bond cleavage of the reduced species to form 4. The present results provide a biomimetic example demonstrating that redox-inactive metal ions bound to an iron(III)-peroxo intermediate play a significant role in activating the peroxide O-O bond to form a high-valent iron(IV)-oxo species.

Sc3+-triggered oxoiron(IV) formation from O2 and its non-heme iron(II) precursor via a Sc3+-peroxo-Fe3+ intermediate

We report that redox-inactive Sc(3+) can trigger O2 activation by the Fe(II)(TMC) center (TMC = tetramethylcyclam) to generate the corresponding oxoiron(IV) complex in the presence of BPh4(-) as an electron donor. To model a possible intermediate in the above reaction, we generated an unprecedented Sc(3+) adduct of [Fe(III)(η(2)-O2)(TMC)](+) by an alternative route, which was found to have an Fe(3+)-(μ-η(2):η(2)-peroxo)-Sc(3+) core and to convert to the oxoiron(IV) complex. These results have important implications for the role a Lewis acid can play in facilitating O-O bond cleavage during the course of O2 activation at non-heme iron centers.

A high-valent heterobimetallic [Cu(III)(μ-O)2Ni(III)]2+ core with nucleophilic oxo groups

A heterobimetallic CuNi bis(μ-oxo) diamond core is shown to possess nucleophilic oxo groups, and has been demonstrated for the first time as a viable intermediate during the deformylation of fatty aldehydes by cyanobacterial aldehyde decarbonylase.

Reactivity of lithium n-butyl amidinates towards group 14 metal(II) chlorides providing series of hetero- and homoleptic tetrylenes

The new class of homo- and heteroleptic n-butyl-N,N'-disubstituted amidinato group 14 metal(II) complexes were prepared by salt elimination from starting lithium amidinates and metal(II) chlorides both in stoichiometric ratio 2:1 and 1:1, respectively. The target amidinates contain less bulky isopropyl or cyclohexyl as well as a sterically demanding aromatic substituent. Desired 1:1 Pb(II) complexes are not accessible by the described procedure. Ligand transfer from Pb to Sn is taking place if homoleptic Pb(II) compounds are reacted with SnCl(2). Prepared tetrylenes were characterized by (1)H, (13)C, (119)Sn and (207)Pb NMR spectroscopy in C(6)D(6) or THF-d(8). X-Ray diffraction studies of one heteroleptic Ge(II) monomeric where the coordination polyhedron of the three coordinated germanium atoms is a trigonal pyramid, two different dimeric structures of heteroleptic Sn(II) complexes, one amidine hydroiodide byproduct and the oxidation product of the heteroleptic chloro Sn(II) amidinate as a tetranuclear species with two Sn(IV) and two Sn(II) atoms in central Sn(2)O(2) planar ring were performed on appropriate single crystals. The dimer of one of the heteroleptic stannylenes reveals a new type of monomeric units connection, weak Sn-Cl contact and an interaction of the tin atom with delocalized N-C(C)-N system of the amidinato ligand of the second molecule.

Lessons from isolable nickel(I) precursor complexes for small molecule activation

Small-molecule activation by transition metals is essential to numerous organic transformations, both biological and industrial. Creating useful metal-mediated activation systems often depends on stabilizing the metal with uncommon low oxidation states and low coordination numbers. This provides a redox-active metal center with vacant coordination sites well suited for interacting with small molecules. Monovalent nickel species, with their d(9) electronic configuration, are moderately strong one-electron reducing agents that are synthetically attractive if they can be isolated. They represent suitable reagents for closing the knowledge gap in nickel-mediated activation of small molecules. Recently, the first strikingly stable dinuclear β-diketiminate nickel(I) precursor complexes were synthesized, proving to be suitable promoters for small-molecule binding and activation. They have led to many unprecedented nickel complexes bearing activated small molecules in different reduction stages. In this Account, we describe selected achievements in the activation of nitrous oxide (N(2)O), O(2), the heavier chalcogens (S, Se, and Te), and white phosphorus (P(4)) through this β-diketiminatonickel(I) precursor species. We emphasize the reductive activation of O(2), owing to its promise in oxidation processes. The one-electron-reduced O(2) activation product, that is, the corresponding β-diketiminato-supported Ni-O(2) complex, is a genuine superoxonickel(II) complex, representing an important intermediate in the early stages of O(2) activation. It selectively acts as an oxygen-atom transfer agent, hydrogen-atom scavenger, or both towards exogenous organic substrates to yield oxidation products. The one-electron reduction of the superoxonickel(II) moiety was examined by using elemental potassium, β-diketiminatozinc(II) chloride, and β-diketiminatoiron(I) complexes, affording the first heterobimetallic complexes featuring a [NiO(2)M] subunit (M is K, Zn, or Fe). Through density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the geometric and electronic structures of these complexes were established and their distinctive reactivity, including the unprecedented monooxygenase-like activity of a bis(μ-oxo)nickel-iron complex, was studied. The studies have further led to other heterobimetallic complexes containing a [NiO(2)M] core, which are useful for understanding the influence of the heterometal on structure-reactivity relationships. The activation of N(2)O led directly to the hydrogen-atom abstraction product bis(μ-hydroxo)nickel(II) species and prevented isolation of any intermediate. In contrast, the activation of elemental S, Se, and Te with the same nickel(I) reagent furnished activation products with superchalcogenido E(2)(-) (E is S, Se, or Te) and dichalcogenido E(2)(2-) ligand in different activation stages. The isolable supersulfidonickel(II) subunit may serve as a versatile building block for the synthesis of heterobimetallic disulfidonickel(II) complexes with a [NiS(2)M] core. In the case of white phosphorus, the P(4) molecule has been coordinated to the nickel(I) center of dinuclear β-diketiminatonickel(I) precursor complexes; however, the whole P(4) subunit is a weaker electron acceptor than the dichalcogen ligands E(2), thus remaining unreduced. This P(4) binding mode is rare and could open new doors for subsequent functionalization of P(4). Our advances in understanding how these small molecules are bound to a nickel(I) center and are activated for further transformation offer promise for designing new catalysts. These nickel-containing complexes offer exceptional potential for nickel-mediated transformations of organic molecules and as model compounds for mimicking active sites of nickel-containing metalloenzymes.