1
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Karatrantos AV, Middendorf M, Nosov DR, Cai Q, Westermann S, Hoffmann K, Nürnberg P, Shaplov AS, Schönhoff M. Diffusion and structure of propylene carbonate-metal salt electrolyte solutions for post-lithium-ion batteries: From experiment to simulation. J Chem Phys 2024; 161:054502. [PMID: 39087537 DOI: 10.1063/5.0216222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The diffusion of cations in organic solvent solutions is important for the performance of metal-ion batteries. In this article, pulsed field gradient nuclear magnetic resonance experiments and fully atomistic molecular dynamic simulations were employed to study the temperature-dependent diffusive behavior of various liquid electrolytes representing 1M propylene carbonate solutions of metal salts with bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (TFSI-) or hexafluorophosphate (PF6-) anions commonly used in lithium-ion batteries and beyond. The experimental studies revealed the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficients for the propylene carbonate (PC) solvent and for the anions following an Arrhenius type of behavior. It was observed that the PC molecules are the faster species. For the monovalent cations (Li+, Na+, K+), the PC solvent diffusion was enhanced as the cation size increased, while for the divalent cations (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+), the opposite trend was observed, i.e., the diffusion coefficients decreased as the cation size increased. The anion diffusion in LiTFSI and NaTFSI solutions was found to be similar, while in electrolytes with divalent cations, a decrease in anion diffusion with increasing cation size was observed. It was shown that non-polarizable charge-scaled force fields could correspond perfectly to the experimental values of the anion and PC solvent diffusion coefficients in salt solutions of both monovalent (Li+, Na+, K+) and divalent (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+) cations at a range of operational temperatures. Finally, after calculating the radial distribution functions between cations, anions, and solvent molecules, the increase in the PC diffusion coefficient established with the increase in cation size for monovalent cations was clearly explained by the large hydration shell of small Li+ cations, due to their strong interaction with the PC solvent. In solutions with larger monovalent cations, such as Na+, and with a smaller solvation shell of PC, the PC diffusion is faster due to more liberated solvent molecules. In the salt solutions with divalent cations, both the anion and the PC diffusion coefficients decreased as the cation size increased due to an enhanced cation-anion coordination, which was accompanied by an increase in the amount of PC in the cation solvation shell due to the presence of anions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Argyrios V Karatrantos
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 5 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7EX, United Kingdom
| | - Maleen Middendorf
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 28/30, 48149 Münster, Germany
- International Graduate School on Battery Chemistry, Characterization, Analysis, Recycling and Application (BACCARA), Münster, Germany
| | - Daniil R Nosov
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 5 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- Department of Physics and Materials Science, University of Luxembourg, 2 Avenue de l'Université, L-4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Qiong Cai
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7EX, United Kingdom
| | - Stephan Westermann
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 5 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Katja Hoffmann
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 28/30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Pinchas Nürnberg
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 28/30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Alexander S Shaplov
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), 5 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Monika Schönhoff
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 28/30, 48149 Münster, Germany
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2
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Schopper N, Landmann J, Sprenger JAP, Zapf L, Bertermann R, Ignat'ev NV, Finze M. Alkylcyanoborate Anions: Building Blocks for Fluorine-Free Low-Viscosity, Electrochemically and Thermally Stable Ionic Liquids. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202301497. [PMID: 37395305 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202301497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
A set of mixed-substituted potassium alkylcyano- and alkylcyanofluoroborates has been synthesized using easily accessible starting compounds and characterized by elemental analysis, NMR and vibrational spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry. In addition, single-crystal structures of salts of the cyanoborate anions have been derived from X-ray diffraction experiments. The 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium room temperature ionic liquids ([EMIm]+ -RTILs) with the new borate anions have been synthesized and their physicochemical properties, that is, high thermal and electrochemical stability, low viscosity, and high conductivity, have been compared to the properties of related [EMIm]+ -RTILs. The influence of the different alkyl substituents at boron has been assessed. The exemplary study on the properties with the [EMIm]+ -ILs with the mixed water stable alkylcyanoborate anions points towards the potential of these fluorine-free borate anions, in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Schopper
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Landmann
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jan A P Sprenger
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ludwig Zapf
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Bertermann
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nikolai V Ignat'ev
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
- Consultant, Merck Life Science KGaA, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Maik Finze
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Institut für nachhaltige Chemie & Katalyse mit Bor (ICB), Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
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3
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Rezaei M, Sakong S, Groß A. Molecular Modeling of Water-in-Salt Electrolytes: A Comprehensive Analysis of Polarization Effects and Force Field Parameters in Molecular Dynamics Simulations. J Chem Theory Comput 2023; 19:5712-5730. [PMID: 37528639 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.3c00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Accurate modeling of highly concentrated aqueous solutions, such as water-in-salt (WiS) electrolytes in battery applications, requires proper consideration of polarization contributions to atomic interactions. Within the force field molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, the atomic polarization can be accounted for at various levels. Nonpolarizable force fields implicitly account for polarization effects by incorporating them into their van der Waals interaction parameters. They can additionally mimic electron polarization within a mean-field approximation through ionic charge scaling. Alternatively, explicit polarization description methods, such as the Drude oscillator model, can be selectively applied to either a subset of polarizable atoms or all polarizable atoms to enhance simulation accuracy. The trade-off between simulation accuracy and computational efficiency highlights the importance of determining an optimal level of accounting for atomic polarization. In this study, we analyze different approaches to include polarization effects in MD simulations of WiS electrolytes, with an example of a Na-OTF solution. These approaches range from a nonpolarizable to a fully polarizable force field. After careful examination of computational costs, simulation stability, and feasibility of controlling the electrolyte properties, we identify an efficient combination of force fields: the Drude polarizable force field for salt ions and non-polarizable models for water. This cost-effective combination is sufficiently flexible to reproduce a broad range of electrolyte properties, while ensuring simulation stability over a relatively wide range of force field parameters. Furthermore, we conduct a thorough evaluation of the influence of various force field parameters on both the simulation results and technical requirements, with the aim of establishing a general framework for force field optimization and facilitating parametrization of similar systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majid Rezaei
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, Ulm University, Oberberghof 7, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Sung Sakong
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, Ulm University, Oberberghof 7, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Axel Groß
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, Ulm University, Oberberghof 7, 89081 Ulm, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtzstraße 11, 89069 Ulm, Germany
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4
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Philippi F, Goloviznina K, Gong Z, Gehrke S, Kirchner B, Pádua AAH, Hunt PA. Charge transfer and polarisability in ionic liquids: a case study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:3144-3162. [PMID: 35040843 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp04592j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The practical use of ionic liquids (ILs) is benefiting from a growing understanding of the underpinning structural and dynamic properties, facilitated through classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The predictive and explanatory power of a classical MD simulation is inextricably linked to the underlying force field. A key aspect of the forcefield for ILs is the ability to recover charge based interactions. Our focus in this paper is on the description and recovery of charge transfer and polarisability effects, demonstrated through MD simulations of the widely used 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide [C4C1im][NTf2] IL. We study the charge distributions generated by a range of ab initio methods, and present an interpolation method for determining atom-wise scaled partial charges. Two novel methods for determining the mean field (total) charge transfer from anion to cation are presented. The impact of using different charge models and different partial charge scaling (unscaled, uniformly scaled, atom-wise scaled) are compared to fully polarisable simulations. We study a range of Drude particle explicitly polarisable potentials and shed light on the performance of current approaches to counter known problems. It is demonstrated that small changes in the charge description and MD methodology can have a significant impact; biasing some properties, while leaving others unaffected within the structural and dynamic domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederik Philippi
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, White City Campus, London W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Kateryna Goloviznina
- Laboratoire de Chimie, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon & CNRS, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Zheng Gong
- Laboratoire de Chimie, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon & CNRS, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Sascha Gehrke
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Beringstr. 4+6, D-53115 Bonn, Germany.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Barbara Kirchner
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Beringstr. 4+6, D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Agílio A H Pádua
- Laboratoire de Chimie, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon & CNRS, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Patricia A Hunt
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, White City Campus, London W12 0BZ, UK.,School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.
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5
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Ramondo F, Gontrani L, Campetella M. Coupled hydroxyl and ether functionalisation in EAN derivatives: the effect of hydrogen bond donor/acceptor groups on the structural heterogeneity studied with X-ray diffractions and fixed charge/polarizable simulations. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:11464-11475. [PMID: 31112158 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp00571d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We present a study by energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction of liquid 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethan-1-ammonium nitrate, NH3CH2CH2(OCH2CH2OH)+NO3- (22HHEAN). This ionic liquid is derived from the parent ethylammonium nitrate (EAN) with an ether link in the chain and a hydroxyl group in the terminal position. The absence of peaks at low-q values in the experimental diffraction curve indicates that the added polar groups and the high conformational isomerism of the cations alter strongly the nanosegregation of the parent EAN liquid. Aggregation between ionic species may involve hydrogen bonding between cations and anions and a variety of intermolecular hydrogen bonds between cations. Diffraction patterns are compared with the results of molecular dynamics simulations with two different force fields: the fixed point charge force field (GAFF) with different charge scaling protocols and the polarizable AMOEBA force field. Most point charge models lead to the appearance of a quite evident low q-peak which decreases gradually, when the percentage and type of the scaling (uniform vs. non-uniform) are increased. In the polarisable model and in the model where only anion charges are scaled to 20%, instead, the pre-peak is absent in agreement with our experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Ramondo
- Department of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio I-67100, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Gontrani
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician", University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, I-40126 Bologna, Italy. and Department of Chemistry, University "La Sapienza", Roma Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Roma, Italy
| | - Marco Campetella
- Department of Chemistry, University "La Sapienza", Roma Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Roma, Italy and Chimie ParisTech, PSL Research University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris, F-75005 Paris, France
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6
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Philippi F, Quinten A, Rauber D, Springborg M, Hempelmann R. Density Functional Theory Descriptors for Ionic Liquids and the Introduction of a Coulomb Correction. J Phys Chem A 2019; 123:4188-4200. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.9b01831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frederik Philippi
- Physical Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus B 2 2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Anna Quinten
- Physical Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus B 2 2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Daniel Rauber
- Physical Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus B 2 2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Transfercenter Sustainable Electrochemistry, Saarland University and KIST Europe, Am Markt, Zeile 3, 66125 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Michael Springborg
- Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus B 2 2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P. R. China
| | - Rolf Hempelmann
- Physical Chemistry, Saarland University, Campus B 2 2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Transfercenter Sustainable Electrochemistry, Saarland University and KIST Europe, Am Markt, Zeile 3, 66125 Saarbrücken, Germany
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7
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Tchoń D, Makal A, Gutmann M, Woźniak K. Doxycycline hydrate and doxycycline hydrochloride dihydrate – crystal structure and charge density analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/zkri-2018-2058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
High-resolution low-temperature X-ray diffraction experiments for doxycycline monohydrate and hydrochloride dihydrate have been performed. Translation-Libration-Screw (TLS) analysis for both crystal forms as well as the data from neutron diffraction experiment for hydrochloride combined with the Hansen-Coppens formalism resulted in precise charge density distribution models for both the zwitterionic monohydrate and a protonated hydrochloride crystal forms. Their detailed topological analysis suggested that the electron structure of doxycycline’s amide moiety undergoes significant changes during protonation due to formation of a very strong resonance-assisted hydrogen bond. A notably increased participation of amide nitrogen atom and hydrogen-accepting oxygen atom in the resonance upon doxycycline protonation was observed. A comparison of TLS- and neutron data-derived hydrogen parameters confirmed the experimental neutron data to be vital for proper description of intra- and inter-molecular interactions in this compound. Finally, calculated lattice and interaction energies quantified repulsive Dox-Dox interactions in the protonated crystal form of the antibiotic, relating with a good solubility of doxycycline hydrochloride relative to its hydrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Tchoń
- Biological and Chemical Research Centre , Department of Chemistry , University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 101 , 02-089 Warszawa , Poland
| | - Anna Makal
- Biological and Chemical Research Centre , Department of Chemistry , University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 101 , 02-089 Warszawa , Poland
| | - Matthias Gutmann
- ISIS Facility , STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus , Chilton, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 OQX , England
| | - Krzysztof Woźniak
- Biological and Chemical Research Centre , Department of Chemistry , University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 101 , 02-089 Warszawa , Poland
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8
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Melcr J, Martinez-Seara H, Nencini R, Kolafa J, Jungwirth P, Ollila OHS. Accurate Binding of Sodium and Calcium to a POPC Bilayer by Effective Inclusion of Electronic Polarization. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:4546-4557. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b12510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Josef Melcr
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 117 20 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Hector Martinez-Seara
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 117 20 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ricky Nencini
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 117 20 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Kolafa
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Jungwirth
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 117 20 Prague 6, Czech Republic
- Department of Physics, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 692, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - O. H. Samuli Ollila
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 117 20 Prague 6, Czech Republic
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, 00100 Helsinki, Finland
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9
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Li Y, Yuan D, Wang Q, Li W, Li S. Accurate prediction of the structure and vibrational spectra of ionic liquid clusters with the generalized energy-based fragmentation approach: critical role of ion-pair-based fragmentation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:13547-13557. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cp00513c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The GEBF method with the ion-pair-based fragmentation has been developed to facilitate ab initio calculations of general ionic liquid clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunzhi Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing
| | - Dandan Yuan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing
| | - Qingchun Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing
| | - Wei Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing
| | - Shuhua Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Institute of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing
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10
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Wu Q, Rauscher PM, Lang X, Wojtecki RJ, de Pablo JJ, Hore MJA, Rowan SJ. Poly[ n]catenanes: Synthesis of molecular interlocked chains. Science 2017; 358:1434-1439. [PMID: 29192134 DOI: 10.1126/science.aap7675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
As the macromolecular version of mechanically interlocked molecules, mechanically interlocked polymers are promising candidates for the creation of sophisticated molecular machines and smart soft materials. Poly[n]catenanes, where the molecular chains consist solely of interlocked macrocycles, contain one of the highest concentrations of topological bonds. We report, herein, a synthetic approach toward this distinctive polymer architecture in high yield (~75%) via efficient ring closing of rationally designed metallosupramolecular polymers. Light-scattering, mass spectrometric, and nuclear magnetic resonance characterization of fractionated samples support assignment of the high-molar mass product (number-average molar mass ~21.4 kilograms per mole) to a mixture of linear poly[7-26]catenanes, branched poly[13-130]catenanes, and cyclic poly[4-7]catenanes. Increased hydrodynamic radius (in solution) and glass transition temperature (in bulk materials) were observed upon metallation with Zn2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Wu
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.,Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Phillip M Rauscher
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Xiaolong Lang
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Rudy J Wojtecki
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Juan J de Pablo
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.,Materials Science Division and Institute for Molecular Engineering, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL 60439, USA
| | - Michael J A Hore
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Stuart J Rowan
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.,Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.,Materials Science Division and Institute for Molecular Engineering, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL 60439, USA.,Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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11
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Burgenmeister B, Sonnenberg K, Riedel S, Krossing I. From Square-Planar [ICl4
]−
to Novel Chloroiodates(III)? A Systematic Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of Their Ionic Liquids. Chemistry 2017; 23:11312-11322. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201701555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Burgenmeister
- Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie and Freiburger Materialforschungszentrum (FMF); Universität Freiburg; Albertstr. 21 79104 Freiburg Germany
| | - Karsten Sonnenberg
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry; FU Berlin; Fabeckstrasse 34/36 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Sebastian Riedel
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry; FU Berlin; Fabeckstrasse 34/36 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Ingo Krossing
- Institut für Anorganische und Analytische Chemie and Freiburger Materialforschungszentrum (FMF); Universität Freiburg; Albertstr. 21 79104 Freiburg Germany
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12
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Hunt PA. Quantum Chemical Modeling of Hydrogen Bonding in Ionic Liquids. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2017; 375:59. [PMID: 28523638 PMCID: PMC5480408 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-017-0142-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) is an important and very general phenomenon. H-bonding is part of the basis of life in DNA, key in controlling the properties of water and ice, and critical to modern applications such as crystal engineering, catalysis applications, pharmaceutical and agrochemical development. H-bonding also plays a significant role for many ionic liquids (IL), determining the secondary structuring and affecting key physical parameters. ILs exhibit a particularly diverse and wide range of traditional as well as non-standard forms of H-bonding, in particular the doubly ionic H-bond is important. Understanding the fundamental nature of the H-bonds that form within ILs is critical, and one way of accessing this information, that cannot be recovered by any other computational method, is through quantum chemical electronic structure calculations. However, an appropriate method and basis set must be employed, and a robust procedure for determining key structures is essential. Modern generalised solvation models have recently been extended to ILs, bringing both advantages and disadvantages. QC can provide a range of information on geometry, IR and Raman spectra, NMR spectra and at a more fundamental level through analysis of the electronic structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Hunt
- Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK.
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase
Complex Systems, Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process,
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xiaomin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase
Complex Systems, Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process,
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Haifeng Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase
Complex Systems, Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process,
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xiangping Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase
Complex Systems, Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process,
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Suojiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase
Complex Systems, Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process,
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
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14
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Filipová L, Kohagen M, Štacko P, Muchová E, Slavíček P, Klán P. Photoswitching of Azobenzene-Based Reverse Micelles above and at Subzero Temperatures As Studied by NMR and Molecular Dynamics Simulations. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:2306-2317. [PMID: 28234488 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b04455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We designed and studied the structure, dynamics, and photochemistry of photoswitchable reverse micelles (RMs) composed of azobenzene-containing ammonium amphiphile 1 and water in chloroform at room and subzero temperatures by NMR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. The NMR and diffusion coefficient analyses showed that micelles containing either the E or Z configuration of 1 are stable at room temperature. Depending on the water-to-surfactant molar ratio, the size of the RMs remains unchanged or is slightly reduced because of the partial loss of water from the micellar cores upon extensive E → Z or Z → E photoisomerization of the azobenzene group in 1. Upon freezing at 253 or 233 K, E-1 RMs partially precipitate from the solution but are redissolved upon warming whereas Z-1 RMs remain fully dissolved at all temperatures. Light-induced isomerization of 1 at low temperatures does not lead to the disintegration of RMs remaining in the solution; however, its scope is influenced by a precipitation process. To obtain a deeper molecular view of RMs, their structure was characterized by MD simulations. It is shown that RMs allow for amphiphile isomerization without causing any immediate significant structural changes in the micelles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miriam Kohagen
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague , Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | | | - Eva Muchová
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague , Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Slavíček
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague , Technická 5, 16628 Prague 6, Czech Republic
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15
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de Jesus JC, Pires PAR, Mustafa R, Riaz N, El Seoud OA. Experimental and theoretical studies on solvation in aqueous solutions of ionic liquids carrying different side chains: the n-butyl-group versus the methoxyethyl group. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra00273d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
We used solvatochromic compounds to probe solvation in mixtures of water, W, and four ionic liquids (ILs), 1-R-3-methylimidazoliumX, where R =n-butyl or methoxyethyl and X = acetate and chloride.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paulo A. R. Pires
- Institute of Chemistry
- The University of São Paulo
- 05508-000 São Paulo
- Brazil
| | - Rizwana Mustafa
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of Bahawalpur
- Bahawalpur 63100
- Pakistan
| | - Naheed Riaz
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of Bahawalpur
- Bahawalpur 63100
- Pakistan
| | - Omar A. El Seoud
- Institute of Chemistry
- The University of São Paulo
- 05508-000 São Paulo
- Brazil
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16
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Chaudhari MI, Nair JR, Pratt LR, Soto FA, Balbuena PB, Rempe SB. Scaling Atomic Partial Charges of Carbonate Solvents for Lithium Ion Solvation and Diffusion. J Chem Theory Comput 2016; 12:5709-5718. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.6b00824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mangesh I. Chaudhari
- Center
for Biological and Engineering Sciences, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Jijeesh R. Nair
- Department
of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Turin 10129, Italy
| | - Lawrence R. Pratt
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Fernando A. Soto
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Perla B. Balbuena
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Susan B. Rempe
- Center
for Biological and Engineering Sciences, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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17
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Nelyubina YV, Shaplov AS, Lozinskaya EI, Buzin MI, Vygodskii YS. A New Volume-Based Approach for Predicting Thermophysical Behavior of Ionic Liquids and Ionic Liquid Crystals. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:10076-9. [PMID: 27479022 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b05174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Volume-based prediction of melting points and other properties of ionic liquids (ILs) relies on empirical relations with volumes of ions in these low-melting organic salts. Here we report an accurate way to ionic volumes by Bader's partitioning of electron densities from X-ray diffraction obtained via a simple database approach. For a series of 1-tetradecyl-3-methylimidazolium salts, the volumes of different anions are found to correlate linearly with melting points; larger anions giving lower-melting ILs. The volume-based concept is transferred to ionic liquid crystals (ILs that adopt liquid crystalline mesophases, ILCs) for predicting the domain of their existence from the knowledge of their constituents. For 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium ILCs, linear correlations of ionic volumes with the occurrence of LC mesophase and its stability are revealed, thus paving the way to rational design of ILCs by combining suitably sized ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia V Nelyubina
- A. N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds , Vavilova Str., 28, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Alexander S Shaplov
- A. N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds , Vavilova Str., 28, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Elena I Lozinskaya
- A. N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds , Vavilova Str., 28, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Mikhail I Buzin
- A. N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds , Vavilova Str., 28, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Yakov S Vygodskii
- A. N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds , Vavilova Str., 28, Moscow 119991, Russia
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18
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Electrostatic Properties of N-Heterocyclic Carbenes Obtained by Experimental Charge-Density Analysis of Two Selenium Adducts. Eur J Inorg Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201600292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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19
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Dong K, Zhang S, Wang J. Understanding the hydrogen bonds in ionic liquids and their roles in properties and reactions. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:6744-64. [PMID: 27042709 DOI: 10.1039/c5cc10120d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) have many potential applications in the chemical industry. In order to understand ILs, their molecular details have been extensively investigated. Intuitively, electrostatic forces are solely important in ILs. However, experiments and calculations have provided strong evidence for the existence of H-bonds in ILs and their roles in the properties and applications of ILs. As a structure-directing force, H-bonds are responsible for ionic pairing, stacking and self-assembling. Their geometric structure, interaction energy and electronic configuration in the ion-pairs of imidazolium-based ILs and protic ionic liquids (PILs) show a great number of differences compared to conventional H-bonds. In particular, their cooperation with electrostatic, dispersion and π interactions embodies the physical nature of H-bonds in ILs, which anomalously influences their properties, leading to a decrease in their melting points and viscosities and thus fluidizing them. Using ILs as catalysts and solvents, many reactions can be activated by the presence of H-bonds, which reduce the reaction barriers and stabilize the transition states. In the dissolution of lignocellulosic biomass by ILs, H-bonds exhibit a most important role in disrupting the H-bonding network of cellulose and controlling microscopic ordering into domains. In this article, a critical review is presented regarding the structural features of H-bonds in ILs and PILs, the correlation between H-bonds and the properties of ILs, and the roles of H-bonds in typical reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Complex System, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China.
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20
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Fakhraee M, Gholami MR. Probing the effects of the ester functional group, alkyl side chain length and anions on the bulk nanostructure of ionic liquids: a computational study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:9734-51. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp07057k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The effects of ester addition on nanostructural properties of biodegradable ILs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Fakhraee
- Department of Chemistry
- Sharif University of Technology
- Tehran
- Iran
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21
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Lee TB, Oh S, Gohndrone TR, Morales-Collazo O, Seo S, Brennecke JF, Schneider WF. CO2 Chemistry of Phenolate-Based Ionic Liquids. J Phys Chem B 2015; 120:1509-17. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b06934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tae Bum Lee
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Seungmin Oh
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Thomas R. Gohndrone
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Oscar Morales-Collazo
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Samuel Seo
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Joan F. Brennecke
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - William F. Schneider
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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22
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Katsyuba SA, Vener MV, Zvereva EE, Fei Z, Scopelliti R, Brandenburg JG, Siankevich S, Dyson PJ. Quantification of Conventional and Nonconventional Charge-Assisted Hydrogen Bonds in the Condensed and Gas Phases. J Phys Chem Lett 2015; 6:4431-4436. [PMID: 26496074 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b02175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Charge-assisted hydrogen bonds (CAHBs) play critical roles in many systems from biology through to materials. In none of these areas has the role and function of CAHBs been explored satisfactorily because of the lack of data on the energy of CAHBs in the condensed phases. We have, for the first time, quantified three types of CAHBs in both the condensed and gas phases for 1-(2'-hydroxylethyl)-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([C2OHmim][OAc]). The energy of conventional OH···[OAc](-) CAHBs is ∼10 kcal·mol(-1), whereas nonconventional C(sp2)H···[OAc](-) and C(sp3)H···[OAc](-) CAHBs are weaker by ∼5-7 kcal·mol(-1). In the gas phase, the strength of the nonconventional CAHBs is doubled, whereas the conventional CAHBs are strengthened by <20%. The influence of cooperativity effects on the ability of the [OAc](-) anion to deprotonate the imidazolium cation is evaluated. The ability to quantify CAHBs in the condensed phase on the basis of easier accessible gas-phase estimates is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey A Katsyuba
- A. E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences , Arbuzov Street 8, 420088 Kazan, Russia
| | - Mikhail V Vener
- Department of Quantum Chemistry, Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology , Miusskaya Square 9, 125047 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena E Zvereva
- A. E. Arbuzov Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry, Kazan Scientific Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences , Arbuzov Street 8, 420088 Kazan, Russia
- Institut de Nanosciences et Cryogénie, SP2M/L_sim, CEA , 17 Rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Zhaofu Fei
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) EPFL - BCH , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rosario Scopelliti
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) EPFL - BCH , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jan Gerit Brandenburg
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical Chemistry, Institut für Physikalische und Theoretische Chemie der Universität Bonn , Beringstrasse 4, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Sviatlana Siankevich
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) EPFL - BCH , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Paul J Dyson
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) EPFL - BCH , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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23
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Abstract
Ionic liquids (IL) and hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) are two diverse fields for which there is a developing recognition of significant overlap. Doubly ionic H-bonds occur when a H-bond forms between a cation and anion, and are a key feature of ILs. Doubly ionic H-bonds represent a wide area of H-bonding which has yet to be fully recognised, characterised or explored. H-bonds in ILs (both protic and aprotic) are bifurcated and chelating, and unlike many molecular liquids a significant variety of distinct H-bonds are formed between different types and numbers of donor and acceptor sites within a given IL. Traditional more neutral H-bonds can also be formed in functionalised ILs, adding a further level of complexity. Ab initio computed parameters; association energies, partial charges, density descriptors as encompassed by the QTAIM methodology (ρBCP), qualitative molecular orbital theory and NBO analysis provide established and robust mechanisms for understanding and interpreting traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds. In this review the applicability and extension of these parameters to describe and quantify the doubly ionic H-bond has been explored. Estimating the H-bonding energy is difficult because at a fundamental level the H-bond and ionic interaction are coupled. The NBO and QTAIM methodologies, unlike the total energy, are local descriptors and therefore can be used to directly compare neutral, ionic and doubly ionic H-bonds. The charged nature of the ions influences the ionic characteristics of the H-bond and vice versa, in addition the close association of the ions leads to enhanced orbital overlap and covalent contributions. The charge on the ions raises the energy of the Ylp and lowers the energy of the X-H σ* NBOs resulting in greater charge transfer, strengthening the H-bond. Using this range of parameters and comparing doubly ionic H-bonds to more traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds it is clear that doubly ionic H-bonds cover the full range of weak through to very strong H-bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Hunt
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
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24
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Nelyubina YV, Korlyukov AA, Lyssenko KA. Invariom approach as a new tool in electron density studies of ionic liquids: a model case of 1-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride BDMIM[Cl]. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra13752g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this comparative study of an ionic liquid (IL), BDMIM[Cl], the invariom approximation emerges as a useful tool in search for ‘structure–property’ relations in ILs, as entangling complex interplay of interionic interactions that operate in them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu. V. Nelyubina
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds
- Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
| | - A. A. Korlyukov
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds
- Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University
| | - K. A. Lyssenko
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds
- Russian Academy of Sciences
- Moscow
- Russia
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25
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Wang YL, Shah FU, Glavatskih S, Antzutkin ON, Laaksonen A. Atomistic Insight into Orthoborate-Based Ionic Liquids: Force Field Development and Evaluation. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:8711-23. [DOI: 10.1021/jp503029d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Lei Wang
- Department
of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Faiz Ullah Shah
- Chemistry
of Interfaces, Luleå University of Technology, S-971 87, Luleå, Sweden
| | - Sergei Glavatskih
- System
and Component Design, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, S-10 044, Stockholm, Sweden
- Mechanical
Construction and Production, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Oleg N. Antzutkin
- Chemistry
of Interfaces, Luleå University of Technology, S-971 87, Luleå, Sweden
- Department
of Physics, Warwick University, CV4 7AL, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Aatto Laaksonen
- Department
of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
- Stellenbosch
Institute of Advanced Studies (STIAS), Wallenberg Research Centre, Stellenbosch University, Marais Street, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
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