1
|
Lin Y, Kouznetsova TB, Foret AG, Craig SL. Solvent Polarity Effects on the Mechanochemistry of Spiropyran Ring Opening. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:3920-3925. [PMID: 38308653 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c11621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
The spiropyran mechanophore (SP) is employed as a reporter of molecular tension in a wide range of polymer matrices, but the influence of surrounding environment on the force-coupled kinetics of its ring opening has not been quantified. Here, we report single-molecule force spectroscopy studies of SP ring opening in five solvents that span normalized Reichardt solvent polarity factors (ETN) of 0.1-0.59. Individual multimechanophore polymers were activated under increasing tension at constant 300 nm s-1 displacement in an atomic force microscope. The extension results in a plateau in the force-extension curve, whose midpoint occurs at a transition force f* that corresponds to the force required to increase the rate constant of SP activation to approximately 30 s-1. More polar solvents lead to mechanochemical reactions that are easier to trigger; f* decreases across the series of solvents, from a high of 415 ± 13 pN in toluene to a low of 234 ± 9 pN in n-butanol. The trend in mechanochemical reactivity is consistent with the developing zwitterionic character on going from SP to the ring-opened merocyanine product. The force dependence of the rate constant (Δx‡) was calculated for all solvent cases and found to increase with ETN, which is interpreted to reflect a shift in the transition state to a later and more productlike position. The inferred shift in the transition state position is consistent with a double-well (two-step) reaction potential energy surface, in which the second step is rate determining, and the intermediate is more polar than the product.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yangju Lin
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Tatiana B Kouznetsova
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Alex G Foret
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Stephen L Craig
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhou B, Liu J, Huang X, Qiu X, Yang X, Shao H, Tang C, Zhang X. Mechanoluminescent-Triboelectric Bimodal Sensors for Self-Powered Sensing and Intelligent Control. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2023; 15:72. [PMID: 36964430 PMCID: PMC10039194 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-023-01054-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Self-powered flexible devices with skin-like multiple sensing ability have attracted great attentions due to their broad applications in the Internet of Things (IoT). Various methods have been proposed to enhance mechano-optic or electric performance of the flexible devices; however, it remains challenging to realize the display and accurate recognition of motion trajectories for intelligent control. Here, we present a fully self-powered mechanoluminescent-triboelectric bimodal sensor based on micro-nanostructured mechanoluminescent elastomer, which can patterned-display the force trajectories. The deformable liquid metals used as stretchable electrode make the stress transfer stable through overall device to achieve outstanding mechanoluminescence (with a gray value of 107 under a stimulus force as low as 0.3 N and more than 2000 cycles reproducibility). Moreover, a microstructured surface is constructed which endows the resulted composite with significantly improved triboelectric performances (voltage increases from 8 to 24 V). Based on the excellent bimodal sensing performances and durability of the obtained composite, a highly reliable intelligent control system by machine learning has been developed for controlling trolley, providing an approach for advanced visual interaction devices and smart wearable electronics in the future IoT era.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Jize Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyan Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Shao
- Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Chengdu, 610200, People's Republic of China
| | - Changyu Tang
- Chengdu Development Center of Science and Technology, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Chengdu, 610200, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xinxing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Walter M, Linsler D, König T, Gäbert C, Reinicke S, Moseler M, Mayrhofer L. Mechanochemical Activation of Anthracene [4+4] Cycloadducts. J Phys Chem Lett 2023; 14:1445-1451. [PMID: 36734822 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c03493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Controlled formation and breaking of weak chemical bonds is a versatile method for modifying the properties of materials. Anthracene [4+4] cycloadducts are a prime example that can be formed by light and opened by external forces. We address the theoretical description of mechanochemistry of these cycloadducts, where the standard constraint geometry simulates forces approach fails due to the lack of consideration of temperature. Explicit inclusion of external forces reveals the corresponding transition barriers that are clearly dominated by rupture of the [4+4] inter-anthracene bonds. Other bonds come into play at extremely large forces only, which cannot be expected to be reached under ambient conditions. The theoretical results are in line with the experimental rheology of [4+4]-linked anthracene polymers, which indicates reversible re-formation of [4+4] cycloaddition bonds with ultraviolet light after mechanochemical bond breaking due to applied shear stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Walter
- Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, 76131Karlsruhe, Germany
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, 79085Freiburg, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS@FIT, 79110Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dominic Linsler
- Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, 76131Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Tobias König
- Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, 76131Karlsruhe, Germany
| | | | | | - Michael Moseler
- Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, 76131Karlsruhe, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS@FIT, 79110Freiburg, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Dini VA, Gradone A, Villa M, Gingras M, Focarete ML, Ceroni P, Gualandi C, Bergamini G. A high-sensitivity long-lifetime phosphorescent RIE additive to probe free volume-related phenomena in polymers. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:1465-1468. [PMID: 36651351 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc05908h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The photophysical behaviour of phosphorescent rigidification-induced emission (RIE) dyes is highly affected by their micro- and nanoenvironment. The lifetime measure of RIE dyes dispersed in polymers represents an effective approach to gain valuable information on polymer free volume and thus develop materials potentially able to self-monitor physical ageing and mechanical stresses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Antonia Dini
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Alessandro Gradone
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy. .,CNR Institute for microelectronics and microsystems, Via Gobetti 101, 40129, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Marco Villa
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Marc Gingras
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CINAM, Marseille, France
| | - Maria Letizia Focarete
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy. .,Health Sciences and Technologies - Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research (HST-ICIR), Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paola Ceroni
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Chiara Gualandi
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy. .,Health Sciences and Technologies - Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research (HST-ICIR), Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.,Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology, CIRI-MAM, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento, 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giacomo Bergamini
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, Via Selmi, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hertel R, Maftuhin W, Walter M, Sommer M. Conformer Ring Flip Enhances Mechanochromic Performance of ansa-Donor-Acceptor-Donor Mechanochromic Torsional Springs. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:21897-21907. [PMID: 36414534 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c06712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochromophores based on conformational changes of donor-acceptor-donor (DAD) springs allow sensing of forces acting on polymer chains by monotonic changes of absorbance or photoluminescence (PL) wavelength. Here, we identify a series of thiophene (D)-flanked quinoxalines (A) as molecular torsional springs for force sensing in bulk polymers at room temperature. The mode of DAD linkage to the polymer matrix and linker rigidity are key parameters that influence the efficacy of force transduction to the DAD spring and thus mechanochromic response, as probed by in situ PL spectroscopy of bulk films during stress-strain experiments. The largest shift of the PL maximum, and thus the highest sensitivity, is obtained from an ansa-DAD spring exhibiting bridged D units and a stiff A linker. Using detailed spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations, we reveal conformer redistribution in the form of a thiophene ring flip as the major part of the overall mechanochromic response. At forces as low as 27 pN at early stages of deformation, the ring flip precedes mechanically induced planarization of the ansa-DAD spring, the latter process producing a PL shift of 21 nm nN-1. Within the stress-strain diagram, the thiophene ring flip and DAD planarization are thus two separated processes that also cause irreversible and reversible mechanochromic responses, respectively, upon sample failure. As the thiophene ring flip requires much smaller forces than planarization of the DAD spring, such micromechanical motion gives access to sensing of tiny forces and expands both sensitivity and the force range of conformational mechanochromophores.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Hertel
- Institute for Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz09111, Germany
| | - Wafa Maftuhin
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg79110, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT, Freiburg79110, Germany
| | - Michael Walter
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg79110, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT, Freiburg79110, Germany.,Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, Freiburg79108, Germany
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institute for Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz09111, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Khodayeki S, Maftuhin W, Walter M. Force Dependent Barriers from Analytic Potentials within Elastic Environments. Chemphyschem 2022; 23:e202200237. [PMID: 35703590 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202200237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Bond rupture under the action of external forces is usually induced by temperature fluctuations, where the key quantity is the force dependent barrier that needs to be overcome. Using analytic potentials we find that these barriers are fully determined by the dissociation energy and the maximal force the potential can withstand. The barrier shows a simple dependence on these two quantities that allows for a re-interpretation of the Eyring-Zhurkov-Bell length Δ x ‡ and the expressions in theories going beyond that. It is shown that solely elastic environments do not change this barrier in contrast to the predictions of constraint geometry simulate external force (COGEF) strategies. The findings are confirmed by explicit calculations of bond rupture in a polydimethylsiloxane model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samaneh Khodayeki
- Freiburger Institut für Interaktive Materialien und Bioinspirierte Technologien, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110, Freiburg, Germany.,Physikalisches Institut, Universität Freiburg, Herrmann-Herder-Straße 3, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Wafa Maftuhin
- Freiburger Institut für Interaktive Materialien und Bioinspirierte Technologien, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110, Freiburg, Germany.,Physikalisches Institut, Universität Freiburg, Herrmann-Herder-Straße 3, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michael Walter
- Freiburger Institut für Interaktive Materialien und Bioinspirierte Technologien, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110, Freiburg, Germany.,Physikalisches Institut, Universität Freiburg, Herrmann-Herder-Straße 3, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence livMatS@FIT, Freiburg, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institut für Werkstoffmechanik, Wöhlerstraße 11, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Stegerer D, Pracht M, Günther F, Sun H, Preis K, Zerson M, Maftuhin W, Tan WL, Kroon R, McNeill CR, Fabiano S, Walter M, Biskup T, Gemming S, Magerle R, Müller C, Sommer M. Organogels from Diketopyrrolopyrrole Copolymer Ionene/Polythiophene Blends Exhibit Ground-State Single Electron Transfer in the Solid State. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Stegerer
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Martin Pracht
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Florian Günther
- Instituto de Física de Saõ Carlos, Universidade de Saõ Paulo, Saõ Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Hengda Sun
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics (LOE), Department of Science and Technology (ITN), Linköping University, 601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Kevin Preis
- Institut für Physik, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Mario Zerson
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
- Institut für Physik, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Wafa Maftuhin
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT), Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Wen Liang Tan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Renee Kroon
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics (LOE), Department of Science and Technology (ITN), Linköping University, 601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Christopher R. McNeill
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Simone Fabiano
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics (LOE), Department of Science and Technology (ITN), Linköping University, 601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Michael Walter
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT), Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Till Biskup
- Physikalische Chemie und Didaktik der Chemie, Universität des Saarlandes, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sibylle Gemming
- Institut für Physik, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
- Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz 09126, Germany
| | - Robert Magerle
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
- Institut für Physik, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Christian Müller
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
- Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz 09126, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Raisch M, Reiter G, Sommer M. Determining Entanglement Molar Mass of Glassy Polyphenylenes Using Mechanochromic Molecular Springs. ACS Macro Lett 2022; 11:760-765. [PMID: 35612497 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.2c00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Molecular force transduction in tough and glassy poly(meta,meta,para-phenylene) (PmmpP) was investigated as a function of Mn using covalently incorporated mechanochromic donor-acceptor torsional springs based on an ortho-substituted diphenyldiketopyrrolopyrrole (oDPP). Blending oDPP-PmmpP probe chains with long PmmpP matrix chains allowed us to investigate molar-mass-dependent mechanochromic properties for a series of specimens having mechanically identical properties. In the strain-hardening regime, the mechanochromic response (Δλmax,em) was found to be a linear function of the acting stress and fully reversible, making oDPP-PmmpP a real-time and quantitative stress sensor. For entangled and nonentangled probe chains, distinctly different values of Δλmax,em were observed, yielding a critical molar mass of Mc ≈ 11 kg mol-1 for PmmpP. Once physical cross-linking of oDPP in the network of PmmpP was ensured, Δλmax,em was found to be independent of Mn. The resulting value of Mc is in very good agreement with results from rheology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Raisch
- Institute for Chemistry, Polymer Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Günter Reiter
- Institute of Physics, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 3, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institute for Chemistry, Polymer Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Qiu W, Scofield JMP, Gurr PA, Qiao GG. Mechanochromophore-linked Polymeric Materials with Visible Color Changes. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2100866. [PMID: 35338794 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical force as a type of stimuli for smart materials has obtained much attention in the past decade. Color-changing materials in response to mechanical stimuli have shown great potential in the applications such as sensors and displays. Mechanochromophore-linked polymeric materials, which are a growing sub-class of these materials, are discussed in detail in this review. Two main types of mechanochromophores which exhibit visible color change, summarized herein, involve either isomerization or radical generation mechanisms. This review focuses on their synthesis and incorporation into polymer matrices, the type of mechanical force used, factors affecting the mechanochromic properties, and their applications. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenlian Qiu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Joel M P Scofield
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Paul A Gurr
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Greg G Qiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Raisch M, Maftuhin W, Walter M, Sommer M. A mechanochromic donor-acceptor torsional spring. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4243. [PMID: 34244510 PMCID: PMC8270966 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24501-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanochromic polymers are intriguing materials that allow to sense force of specimens under load. Most mechanochromic systems rely on covalent bond scission and hence are two-state systems with optically distinct "on" and "off" states where correlating force with wavelength is usually not possible. Translating force of different magnitude with gradually different wavelength of absorption or emission would open up new possibilities to map and understand force distributions in polymeric materials. Here, we present a mechanochromic donor-acceptor (DA) torsional spring that undergoes force-induced planarization during uniaxial elongation leading to red-shifted absorption and emission spectra. The DA spring is based on ortho-substituted diketopyrrolopyrrole (o-DPP). Covalent incorporation of o-DPP into a rigid yet ductile polyphenylene matrix allows to transduce sufficiently large stress to the DA spring. The mechanically induced deflection from equilibrium geometry of the DA spring is theoretically predicted, in agreement with experiments, and is fully reversible upon stress release.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Raisch
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Wafa Maftuhin
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michael Walter
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT, Freiburg, Germany.
- Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Chemnitz, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sommer M. Substituent Effects Control Spiropyran-Merocyanine Equilibria and Mechanochromic Utility. Macromol Rapid Commun 2020; 42:e2000597. [PMID: 33270317 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Spiropyran (SP) derivatives can be converted into the colored merocyanine (MC) form using a variety of triggers. Optical switching by light for memories and dynamic systems is long known. Recently, mechanical force has been reported as an additional stimulus that converts SP into MC. SP-based mechanochromic systems are especially interesting for polymer scientists, as the covalent attachment of polymer chains is ideal to transduce force to the SP level. Whether such materials are investigated to better understand fundamental processes or long standing questions in polymer science, to design force sensors or to self-report damage, or simply pose fascinating materials which turn colored upon deformation, they have intrigued polymer scientists for more than a decade. With the chemistry of SPs being feasible and SP functionalization important to modulate SP/MC equilibria, a significant amount of work on SP structure- mechanochromic function relations has accumulated. SPs can be used as bifunctional initiators, cross-linkers, monomers, or be synthesized during polymerization. This feature article provides an overview of how the chemistry used sets the boundaries within which the mechanochromic response of SP containing polymers can be modulated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Sommer
- Chemnitz University of Technology, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111, Chemnitz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Shi Z, Wu J, Song Q, Göstl R, Herrmann A. Toward Drug Release Using Polymer Mechanochemical Disulfide Scission. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:14725-14732. [PMID: 32804498 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c07077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Traditional pharmacotherapy suffers from multiple drawbacks that hamper patient treatment, such as the buildup of antibiotic resistances or low drug selectivity and toxicity during systemic application. To overcome these challenges, drug activity can be controlled by employing delivery, targeting, or release solutions that mostly rely on the response to external physicochemical stimuli. Due to various technical limitations, mechanical force as a stimulus in the context of polymer mechanochemistry has so far not been used for this purpose, yet it has been proven to be a convenient and robust method to site-selectively rearrange or cleave bonds with submolecular precision in the realm of materials chemistry. Here, we present an unprecedented mechanochemically responsive system capable of successively releasing small furan-containing molecules, including the furylated fluorophore dansyl and the drugs furosemide as well as furylated doxorubicin, by ultrasound-induced selective scission of disulfide-centered polymers in solution. We show that mechanochemically generated thiol-terminated polymers undergo a Michael-type addition to Diels-Alder (DA) adducts of furylated drugs and acetylenedicarboxylate derivatives, initiating the downstream release of the small molecule drug by a retro DA reaction. We believe that this method can serve as a blueprint for the activation of many other small molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Shi
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany.,Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Jingnan Wu
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany.,Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Qingchuan Song
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany.,Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany.,Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany.,Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Xie R, Weisen AR, Lee Y, Aplan MA, Fenton AM, Masucci AE, Kempe F, Sommer M, Pester CW, Colby RH, Gomez ED. Glass transition temperature from the chemical structure of conjugated polymers. Nat Commun 2020; 11:893. [PMID: 32060331 PMCID: PMC7021822 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14656-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The glass transition temperature (Tg) is a key property that dictates the applicability of conjugated polymers. The Tg demarks the transition into a brittle glassy state, making its accurate prediction for conjugated polymers crucial for the design of soft, stretchable, or flexible electronics. Here we show that a single adjustable parameter can be used to build a relationship between the Tg and the molecular structure of 32 semiflexible (mostly conjugated) polymers that differ drastically in aromatic backbone and alkyl side chain chemistry. An effective mobility value, ζ, is calculated using an assigned atomic mobility value within each repeat unit. The only adjustable parameter in the calculation of ζ is the ratio of mobility between conjugated and non-conjugated atoms. We show that ζ correlates strongly to the Tg, and that this simple method predicts the Tg with a root-mean-square error of 13 °C for conjugated polymers with alkyl side chains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renxuan Xie
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Albree R Weisen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Youngmin Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Melissa A Aplan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Abigail M Fenton
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Ashley E Masucci
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Fabian Kempe
- Institute for Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Strasse der Nationen 62, 09111, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institute for Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Strasse der Nationen 62, 09111, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Christian W Pester
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Ralph H Colby
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- The Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- The Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Izak-Nau E, Campagna D, Baumann C, Göstl R. Polymer mechanochemistry-enabled pericyclic reactions. Polym Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9py01937e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Polymer mechanochemical pericyclic reactions are reviewed with regard to their structural features and substitution prerequisites to the polymer framework.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Izak-Nau
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
| | - Davide Campagna
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry
- RWTH Aachen University
| | - Christoph Baumann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry
- RWTH Aachen University
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Kempe F, Riehle F, Komber H, Matsidik R, Walter M, Sommer M. Semifluorinated, kinked polyarylenes via direct arylation polycondensation. Polym Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0py00973c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The Tg of semifluorinated polyarylenes made via DAP is varied between 35–195 °C depending on side chain, but solubilities are much less side chain dependent. This is explained by interactions between alkoxyphenyl and tetrafluorobenzene units.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Kempe
- Chemnitz University of Technology
- 09111 Chemnitz
- Germany
| | - Felix Riehle
- Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry
- University of Freiburg
- 79104 Freiburg
- Germany
| | - Hartmut Komber
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research
- 01069 Dresden
- Germany
| | | | - Michael Walter
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies (FIT)
- University of Freiburg
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Qiu W, Gurr PA, Qiao GG. Color-Switchable Polar Polymeric Materials. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:29268-29275. [PMID: 31333022 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b09023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Spiropyran is an important mechanophore, which has rarely been incorporated as a cross-linker in polar polymer matrices, limiting its applications in innovative mechanochromic devices. Here, three spiropyrans with two- or three-attachment positions were synthesized and covalently bonded in polar poly(hydroxyethyl acrylate) (PHEA), to achieve color-switchable materials, triggered by light and when swollen in water. The negative photochromism in the dark and mechanical activation by swelling in water were investigated. Measurements of negative photochromism were conducted in solution and cross-linked PHEA bulk polymers, with both showing color reversibility when stored in the dark or on exposure to visible light. The force of swelling in water was sufficient to induce the ring-opening reaction of spiropyran. It was found that tri-substituted spiropyran (SP3) was less influenced by the polar matrix but showed the fastest color activation during swelling. SP3 also showed accelerated ring opening to the colored state during the swelling process. Bleaching rates and color switchability were investigated under swollen and dehydrated conditions. The effect of cross-link density on the swelling activation was explored to better understand the interaction between the mechanophore and the polar environment. The results demonstrated that influences from both the polar environment and the mechanochromic nature of spiropyran had an impact on the absorption intensity, rate of change, and the decoloration rate of the materials. This study provides the opportunity to manipulate the properties of spiropyrans to afford materials with a range of color-switching properties under different stimuli.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenlian Qiu
- Department of Chemical Engineering , The University of Melbourne , Parkville , Victoria 3010 , Australia
| | - Paul A Gurr
- Department of Chemical Engineering , The University of Melbourne , Parkville , Victoria 3010 , Australia
| | - Greg G Qiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering , The University of Melbourne , Parkville , Victoria 3010 , Australia
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Miyagishi HV, Tamaki T, Masai H, Terao J. Synthesis and Acid-Responsiveness of an Insulated π-Conjugated Polymer Containing Spiropyrans in Its Backbone. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24071301. [PMID: 30987095 PMCID: PMC6480293 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24071301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A π-conjugated polymer containing spiropyrans (SPs), which could be almost completely converted to protonated merocyanines (MCH+) and back to the SP form by adding an acid and a base, respectively, was developed. The insulation of the π-conjugated polymer, referred to as insulated spiropyran-containing poly(p-phenylene ethynylene) (ins-SP-PPE), using permethylated α-cyclodextrins (PM α-CD) suppressed the π-π interaction between the polymer chains containing MCH+, and the installation of PM α-CD improved the switching ability of SPs. The polymer exhibited repeatable acidochromism with almost complete conversion between the SP and MCH+ forms. Photoluminescence measurements were conducted and the acid-induced luminescence quenching of the polymer in the solution was observed, which stemmed from energy transfer from the PPE to MCH+ moieties. In the solid state, the quantum yield of ins-SP-PPE was more than twice that of the uninsulated polymer, which derived from the insulation effects. The acid-induced luminescence quenching was also observed in the solid state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiromichi V Miyagishi
- Department of Basic Science, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan.
| | - Takashi Tamaki
- Department of Basic Science, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Masai
- Department of Basic Science, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan.
| | - Jun Terao
- Department of Basic Science, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Qiu W, Gurr PA, da Silva G, Qiao GG. Insights into the mechanochromism of spiropyran elastomers. Polym Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9py00017h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Colourless polymeric samples comprising mechanochromic spiropyrans (SPs) rapidly appear coloured under external pressure, due to their transition from ring closed SP to ring-opened merocyanine (MC).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenlian Qiu
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- The University of Melbourne
- Australia
| | - Paul A. Gurr
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- The University of Melbourne
- Australia
| | - Gabriel da Silva
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- The University of Melbourne
- Australia
| | - Greg G. Qiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- The University of Melbourne
- Australia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Raisch M, Genovese D, Zaccheroni N, Schmidt SB, Focarete ML, Sommer M, Gualandi C. Highly Sensitive, Anisotropic, and Reversible Stress/Strain-Sensors from Mechanochromic Nanofiber Composites. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1802813. [PMID: 30133005 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201802813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Mechanochromic polymeric systems are intensively investigated for real-time stress detection applications. However, an effective stress-sensing material must respond to low deformation with a detectable color change that should be quickly reversible upon force unloading. In this work, mechanochromic nanofibers made by electrospinning are used to produce mechanochromic nanofiber/poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) composites with isotropic and anisoptropic response. Due to chain alignment of spiropyran copolymer chains within the nanofibers, only very small strains are required to yield a mechanochromic response. Composites with aligned and isotropic nanofibers show anisotropic and isotropic mechanochromic behavior, respectively. Due to the special substitution pattern of spiropyran in the copolymer, the mechanochromic response of these nanofiber/PDMS composites shows fast reversibility upon force unloading. The outstanding benefit of using highly sensitive mechanochromic nanofibers as filler in composite materials allows the detection of directional stress and strain, and it is a step forward in the development of smart, mechanically responsive materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Raisch
- Professur Polymerchemie, Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Damiano Genovese
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Nelsi Zaccheroni
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Simon B Schmidt
- Professur Polymerchemie, Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Maria Letizia Focarete
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Michael Sommer
- Professur Polymerchemie, Institut für Chemie, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Chiara Gualandi
- Department of Chemistry "G. Ciamician" and INSTM UdR of Bologna, University of Bologna, via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Afanasenko A, Elangovan S, Stuart MCA, Bonura G, Frusteri F, Barta K. Efficient nickel-catalysed N-alkylation of amines with alcohols. Catal Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cy01200h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A highly active and easy-to-prepare Ni based catalyst system is presented for the selective N-alkylation of amines with alcohols that is in situ generated from Ni(COD)2 and KOH under ligand-free conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anastasiia Afanasenko
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- 9747 AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | | | - Marc C. A. Stuart
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- 9747 AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
- Electron Microscopy, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
| | | | | | - Katalin Barta
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- 9747 AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|