High-Potential Cathodes with Nitrogen Active Centres for Quasi-Solid Proton-Ion Batteries

Tuning Electron Delocalization of Redox-Active Porous Aromatic Framework for Low-Temperature Aqueous Zn-K Hybrid Batteries with Air Self-Chargeability

Air self-charging aqueous batteries promise to integrate energy harvesting technology and battery systems, potentially overcoming a heavy reliance on energy and the spatiotemporal environment. However, the exploitation of multifunctional air self-charging battery systems using promising cathode materials and suitable charge carriers remains challenging. Herein, for the first time, we developed low-temperature self-charging aqueous Zn-K hybrid ion batteries (AZKHBs) using a fully conjugated hexaazanonaphthalene (HATN)-based porous aromatic framework as the cathode material, exhibiting redox chemistry using K+ as charge carriers, and regulating Zn-ion solvation chemistry to guide uniform Zn plating/stripping. The unique AZKHBs exhibit the exceptional electrochemical properties in all-climate conditions. Most importantly, the large potential difference causes the AZKHBs discharged cathode to be oxidized using oxygen, thereby initiating a self-charging process in the absence of an external power source. Impressively, the air self-charging AZKHBs can achieve a maximum voltage of 1.15 V, an impressive discharge capacity (466.3 mAh g-1), and exceptional self-charging performance even at -40 °C. Therefore, the development of self-charging AZKHBs offers a solution to the limitations imposed by the absence of a power grid in harsh environments or remote areas.

Symmetrical Design of Biphenazine Derivative Anode for Proton Ion Batteries with High Voltage and Long-Term Cycle Stability

Organic anodes have emerged as a promising energy storage medium in proton ion batteries (PrIBs) due to their ability to reversibly accommodate non-metallic proton ions. Nevertheless, the currently available organic electrodes often encounter dissolution issues, leading to a decrease in long-cycle stability. In addition, the inherent potential of the organic anode is generally relatively high, resulting in low cell voltage of assembled PrIBs (<1.0 V). To address these challenges, a novel long-period stable, low redox potential biphenylzine derivative, [2,2'-biphenazine]-7,7'-tetraol (BPZT) is explored, from the perspective of molecular symmetry and solubility, in conjunction with the effect of the molecular frontier orbital energy levels on its redox potential. Specifically, BPZT exhibited a low potential of 0.29 V (vs SHE) and is virtually insoluble in 2 m H2SO4 electrolyte during cycling. When paired with MnO2@GF or PbO2 cathodes, the resulting PrIBs achieve cell voltages of 1.07 V or 1.44 V, respectively, and maintain a high capacity retention of 90% over 20000 cycles. Additionally, these full batteries can operate stably at a high mass loading of 10 mgBPZT cm-2, highlighting their potential toward long-term energy storage applications.

Recent Advances in Aqueous Non-Metallic Ion Batteries with Organic Electrodes

Aqueous non-metallic ion batteries have attracted much attention in recent years owing to their fast kinetics, long cycle life, and low manufacture cost. Organic compounds with flexible structural designability are promising electrode materials for aqueous non-metallic ion batteries. In this review, the recent progress of organic electrode materials is systematically summarized for aqueous non-metallic ion batteries with the focus on the interaction between non-metallic ion charge carriers and organic electrode host materials. Both the cations (proton, ammonium ion, and methyl viologen ions) and anions (chloridion, sulfate ion, perchlorate ion, trifluoromethanesulfonate and trifluoromethanesulfonimide ion) storage are discussed. Moreover, the design strategies toward improving the comprehensive performance of organic electrode materials in aqueous non-metallic ion batteries will be summarized. More organic electrode materials with new reaction mechanisms need to be explored to meet the diverse demands of aqueous non-metallic ion batteries with different charge carriers in the future. This review provides insights into developing high-performance organic electrodes for aqueous non-metallic ion batteries.

An Emerging Chemistry Revives Proton Batteries

Developing new energy techniques that simultaneously integrate the fast rate capabilities of supercapacitors and high capacities of batteries represents an ultimate goal in the field of electrochemical energy storage. A new possibility arises with an emerging battery chemistry that relies on proton-ions as the ion-charge-carrier and benefits from the fast transportation kinetics. Proton-based battery chemistry starts with the recent discoveries of materials for proton redox reactions and leads to a renaissance of proton batteries. In this article, the historical developments of proton batteries are outlined and key aspects of battery chemistry are reviewed. First, the fundamental knowledge of proton-ions and their transportation characteristics is introduced; second, Faradaic electrodes for proton storage are categorized and highlighted in detail; then, reported electrolytes and different designs of proton batteries are summarized; last, perspectives of developments for proton batteries are proposed. It is hoped that this review will provide guidance on the rational designs of proton batteries and benefit future developments.

Limiting Interfacial Free Water and Proton Concentration by Hydrogel Electrolytes for Stable MoO3 Anode in a Proton Battery

Aqueous rechargeable proton batteries are attractive due to the small ionic radius, light mass, and ultrafast diffusion kinetics of proton as charge carriers. However, the commonly used acidic electrolyte is usually very corrosive to the electrode material, which seriously affects the cycle life of the battery. Here, it is proposed that decreasing water activity and limiting proton concentration can effectively prevent side reactions of the MoO3 anode such as corrosion and hydrogen precipitation by using a lean-water hydrogel electrolyte. The as-prepared polyacrylamide (PAAM)-poly2-acrylamide-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid (PAMPS)/MnSO4 (PPM) hydrogel electrolyte not only has abundant hydrophilic groups that can form hydrogen bonds with free water and inhibit solvent-electrode interaction, but also has fixed anions that can maintain a certain interaction with protons. The assembled MoO3||MnO2 full battery can stably cycle over 500 times for ≈350 h with an unprecedented capacity retention of 100% even at a low current density of 0.5 A g-1. This work gives a hint that limiting free water as well as proton concentration is important for the design of electrolytes or interfaces in aqueous proton batteries.

Configurational Entropy Strategy Enhanced Structure Stability Achieves Robust Cathode for Aluminum Batteries

Rechargeable aluminum batteries (RABs) are an emerging energy storage device owing to the vast Al resources, low cost, and high safety. However, the poor cyclability and inferior reversible capacity of cathode materials have limited the enhancement of RABs performance. Herein, a high configurational entropy strategy is presented to improve the electrochemical properties of RABs for the first time. The high-entropy (Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Mg)3 O4 cathode exhibits an ultra-stable cycling ability (109 mAh g-1 after 3000 cycles), high specific capacity (268 mAh g-1 at 0.5 A g-1 ), and rapid ion diffusion. Ex situ characterizations indicate that the operational mechanism of (Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Mg)3 O4 cathode is mainly based on the redox process of Fe, Mn, and Ni. Theoretical calculations demonstrate that the oxygen vacancies make a positive contribution to adjusting the distribution of electronic states, which is crucial for enhancing the reaction kinetics at the electrolyte and cathode interface. These findings not only propose a promising cathode material for RABs, but also provide the first elucidation of the operational mechanism and intrinsic information of high-entropy electrodes in multivalent ion batteries.

Searching High-Potential Dihydroxynaphthalene Cathode for Rocking-Chair All-Organic Aqueous Proton Batteries

The lack of acid-proof high-potential cathode largely limits the development and competitiveness of proton batteries. Herein, the authors systematically investigated six dihydroxynaphthalenes (DHNs) and found that 2,6-DHN delivered the best cathode performance in proton battery with the highest redox potential (0.84 V, vs SHE) and a specific capacity of 91.6 mAh g-1 at 1 A g-1 . In situ solid-state electropolymerization of DHNs is responsible for the voltage and capacity fading of DHNs, and 2,6-DHN's excellent electrochemical performance is derived from its high polymerization energy barrier. By compounding with rGO, the 2,6-DHN/rGO electrode can maintain a specific capacity of 89 mAh g-1 even after 12 000 cycles at 5 A g-1 . When it is paired with the 2,6-dihydroxyanthraquinone (DHAQ) anode, the assembled rocking-chair all-organic proton battery exhibited a high cell voltage of 0.85 V, and excellent energy/power densities (70.8 Wh kg-1 /850 W kg-1 ). This study showcases a new-type high-potential proton-containing organic cathode and paves the way for constructing a high-voltage rocking-chair proton battery. Also, in situ solid-state electropolymerization will inspire the further study of phenol-based small-molecule electrodes.

Poly(benzimidazobenzophenanthroline)-Ladder-Type Two-Dimensional Conjugated Covalent Organic Framework for Fast Proton Storage

Electrochemical proton storage plays an essential role in designing next-generation high-rate energy storage devices, e.g., aqueous batteries. Two-dimensional conjugated covalent organic frameworks (2D c-COFs) are promising electrode materials, but their competitive proton and metal-ion insertion mechanisms remain elusive, and proton storage in COFs is rarely explored. Here, we report a perinone-based poly(benzimidazobenzophenanthroline) (BBL)-ladder-type 2D c-COF for fast proton storage in both a mild aqueous Zn-ion electrolyte and strong acid. We unveil that the discharged C-O- groups exhibit largely reduced basicity due to the considerable π-delocalization in perinone, thus affording the 2D c-COF a unique affinity for protons with fast kinetics. As a consequence, the 2D c-COF electrode presents an outstanding rate capability of up to 200 A g-1 (over 2500 C), surpassing the state-of-the-art conjugated polymers, COFs, and metal-organic frameworks. Our work reports the first example of pure proton storage among COFs and highlights the great potential of BBL-ladder-type 2D conjugated polymers in future energy devices.

A Redox-Active Covalent Organic Framework with Highly Accessible Aniline-Fused Quinonoid Units Affords Efficient Proton Charge Storage

Owing to their intrinsic safety and sustainability, aqueous proton batteries have emerged as promising energy devices. Nevertheless, the corrosion or dissolution of electrode materials in acidic electrolytes must be addressed before practical applications. In this study, a cathode material based on a redox-active 2D covalent organic framework (TPAD-COF) with aniline-fused quinonoid units featuring inherently regular open porous channels and excellent stability is developed. The TPAD-COF cathode delivers a high capacity of 126 mAh g-1 at 0.2 A g-1 , paired with long-term cycling stability with capacity retention of 84% after 5000 cycles at 2 A g-1 . Comprehensive ex situ spectroscopy studies correlated with density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that both the -NH- and C=O groups of the aniline-fused quinonoid units exhibit prominent redox activity of six electrons during the charge/discharge processes. Furthermore, the assembled punch battery consisting of a TPAD-COF//anthraquinone (AQ) all-organic system delivers a discharge capacity of 115 mAh g-1 at 0.5 A g-1 after 130 cycles, implying the potential application of the TPAD-COF cathode in aqueous proton batteries. This study provides a new perspective on the design of electrode materials for aqueous proton batteries with long-term cycling performance and high capacity.

Aqueous Organic Hydrogen Gas Proton Batteries with Ultrahigh-Rate and Ultralow-Temperature Performance

Aqueous proton batteries (APBs) have emerged as one of the most promising batteries for large-scale energy storage technology. However, they usually show an undesirable electrochemical performance. Herein, we demonstrate a novel aqueous catalytic hydrogen gas powered organic proton (HOP) battery, which is driven by hydrogen evolution/oxidation redox reactions via commercial nanocatalysts on the anode and coordination/decoordination reactions of C═O with H+ on the cathode. The HOP battery shows an excellent rate capacity of 190.1 mAh g-1 at 1 A g-1 and 71.4 mAh g-1 at 100 A g-1. It also delivers a capacity of 96.6 mAh g-1 after 100000 cycles and operates at temperatures down to -70 °C. Moreover, the HOP battery is fabricated in a large-scale pouch cell with an extended capacity, exhibiting its potential for practical energy storage applications. This work provides new insights into the building of sustainable APBs, which will broaden the horizons of high-performance aqueous batteries.

Aqueous Organic Batteries Using the Proton as a Charge Carrier

Benefiting from the merits of low cost, nonflammability, and high operational safety, aqueous rechargeable batteries have emerged as promising candidates for large-scale energy-storage applications. Among various metal-ion/non-metallic charge carriers, the proton (H+ ) as a charge carrier possesses numerous unique properties such as fast proton diffusion dynamics, a low molar mass, and a small hydrated ion radius, which endow aqueous proton batteries (APBs) with a salient rate capability, a long-term life span, and an excellent low-temperature electrochemical performance. In addition, redox-active organic molecules, with the advantages of structural diversity, rich proton-storage sites, and abundant resources, are considered attractive electrode materials for APBs. However, the charge-storage and transport mechanisms of organic electrodes in APBs are still in their infancy. Therefore, finding suitable electrode materials and uncovering the H+ -storage mechanisms are significant for the application of organic materials in APBs. Herein, the latest research progress on organic materials, such as small molecules and polymers for APBs, is reviewed. Furthermore, a comprehensive summary and evaluation of APBs employing organic electrodes as anode and/or cathode is provided, especially regarding their low-temperature and high-power performances, along with systematic discussions for guiding the rational design and the construction of APBs based on organic electrodes.

Achieving Stable and Ultrafast Potassium Storage of Antimony Anode via Dual Confinement of MXene@Carbon Framework

Antimony-based anode materials are recognized for their high potassium storage capacities and appropriate operating potentials. However, the large volume expansion of Sb during the potassiation/depotassiation process, which results in a quick capacity decay, severely limits its practical application in potassium-ion batteries (PIBs). Here, a carbon-coated Sb/MXene heterostructure composite (CSM) is synthesized by adsorption of Sb3+ on MXene nanosheets via Sb-O-Ti bonds followed by carbothermic reduction to construct dual-confined MXene@carbon conductive framework capable of withstanding high volume expansion of Sb and conducive to enabling accelerated electron transfer kinetics. The CSM composite, particularly CSM-700, when configured as an anode for PIBs, realized high capacity (484.4 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 ), an ultra-stable cycling performance with a high reversible capacity of 435.9 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 after 100 cycles corresponding to a capacity retention rate of 90.0%, and superior rate performance of 323.0 mAh g-1 at 1 A g-1 . The proposed strategy offers a simple route to construct high-performance Sb-based anodes for advanced PIBs.

Ultrathin Li-rich Li-Cu alloy anode capped with lithiophilic LiC6 headspace enabling stable cyclic performance

Li-rich dual-phase Li-Cu alloy is a promising candidate toward practical application of Li metal anode due to its in situ formed unique three-dimensional (3D) skeleton of electrochemical inert LiCu_x solid-solution phase. Since a thin layer of metallic Li phase appears on the surface of as-prepared Li-Cu alloy, the LiCu_x framework cannot regulate Li deposition efficiently in the first Li plating process. Herein, a lithiophilic LiC₆ headspace is capped on the upper surface of the Li-Cu alloy, which can not only offer free space to accommodate Li deposition and maintain dimensional stability of the anode, but also provide abundant lithiophilic sites and guide Li deposition effectively. This unique bilayer architecture is fabricated via a facile thermal infiltration method, where the Li-Cu alloy layer with an ultrathin thickness around 40 μm occupies the bottom of a carbon paper (CP) sheet, and the upper part of this 3D porous framework is reserved as the headspace for Li storage. Notably, the molten Li can quickly convert these carbon fibers of the CP into lithiophilic LiC₆ fibers while the CP is touched with the liquid Li. The synergetic effect between the LiC₆ fibers framework and LiCu_x nanowires scaffold can ensure a uniform local electric field and stable Li metal deposition during cycling. As a consequence, the CP capped ultrathin Li-Cu alloy anode demonstrates excellent cycling stability and rate capability.

Fluoride-Based Stable Quasi-Solid-State Zinc Metal Battery with Superior Rate Capability

Aqueous zinc metal batteries are limited in practical applications due to their short lifespans. Herein, a LaF₃-coated Zn anode (LF@Zn) is investigated to induce the uniform Zn deposition and successfully build a separator-free quasi-solid-state zinc metal battery. The LF@Zn enables smooth and dendrite-free Zn deposition, owing to the homogeneous Zn²⁺ flux regulated by the LaF₃-based quasi-solid-state electrolyte. It can also suppress the corrosion side reactions by modulating the [Zn(H₂O)₆]²⁺ solvation sheath. The polarization of plating and stripping is relatively modest due to the reduced diffuse energy of desolvated Zn²⁺ in the quasi-solid-state electrolyte. In a separator-free symmetric cell, the LF@Zn anode shows a significantly prolonged lifespan of over 1300 h at 2 mA cm^-2 and a superior rate performance with only 156 mV at an ultrahigh current density of 50 mA cm^-2. A LF@Zn//VO₂ quasi-solid-state full cell exhibits outperforming rate capability and a long cyclic performance for up to 3000 cycles at 6.0 A g^-1. A stable Zn anode is established in this work with a fluoride-based quasi-solid-state electrolyte, opening up a new avenue for protecting metal anodes.

Tremella-like Vanadium Tetrasulfide as a High-Performance Cathode Material for Rechargeable Aluminum Batteries

Rechargeable aluminum batteries (RABs) are gaining widespread attention for large-scale energy storage applications as a result of their high energy densities, high security, and abundance. The key to sustain the progress of RABs lies in the quest for the proper cathode materials with prominent capacity and reversible cycle life. Herein, we propose a tremella-like VS₄ as a cathode material aiming to tackle this problem. Obtained from a morphology modification process, VS₄ with a unique nanosheet structure provides sufficient active sites for intercalation and conversion reactions, shortens the transport paths for charge carrier ions, and facilitates the infiltration process for electrolyte. The RAB with the VS₄ cathode exhibits excellent electrochemical performance, including outstanding specific capacity (407.9 mAh g^-1) and stable cycling performance (∼300 cycles at a high current density). The energy storage mechanism has been comprehensively investigated and is confirmed to be a combination of the intercalation/deintercalation of Al³⁺ and AlCl₄^- ions and conversion reaction by various techniques and DFT calculation. Our study not only provides a peculiar and simple strategy for the rational design of metal sulfide cathode materials with high capacity and long-term stability but also proposes a specific energy storage mechanism that guides the development of cathode materials of RABs in the future.