Calculation of Nitrogen‐to‐Protein Conversion Factors: A Review with a Focus on Soy Protein

Teaching the principles of least-cost poultry feed formulation utilizing the Solver function within a computer software workbook

A Microsoft Excel workbook, User-Friendly Feed Formulation with Data from Australia (UffdAu.xlsm), has been developed for teaching feed formulation techniques to tertiary level, university students. It runs under both Microsoft Windows and Apple iOS operating systems. The example ingredient composition matrix is based on the Australian Feed Ingredient Database to illustrate the biological and econometric principles of least-cost feed formulation. The nutrient data are based roughly on recent primary breeder company recommendations. The workbook is easily adapted to appropriate ingredients, nutrients, and prices most relevant to the students, wherever it is used. The workbook uses the linear routines of Excel's Solver add-in under the Data heading in the header Ribbon. There is a worksheet illustrating how to adapt non-linear responses such as exogenous enzymes to typical linear models using a step function. Additional worksheets illustrate how proximate analysis can be interpreted in modern analytical chemistry terms and, how various feed energy measures are related to feed composition. UffdAu.xlsm is available free of charge from the Poultry Hub Australia website (https://www.poultryhub.org).

In vitro protein digestibility to replace in vivo digestibility for purposes of nutrient content claim substantiation in North America's context

The reliance by North American regulatory authorities on in vivo rodent bioassays-Protein Correct-Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) in the U.S. and Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) in Canada-to measure the protein quality for protein content claim substantiation represents a major barrier for innovation in the development and marketing of protein foods. Although FAO in 2013 proposed a new method (Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score, DIAAS), it is still not used for protein content claim substantiation in any jurisdiction. Together with public health efforts to increase the consumption of plant-based foods, removing hurdles is key to incentivizing the food industry to measure protein digestibility in making food formulation decisions as well as in claiming protein content on product labels. To address this issue, a pathway has been proposed to position alternative methods for in vitro protein digestibility in collaborative studies to generate the data necessary for method approval by a certifying body. The latter is critical to the potential recognition of these methods by both Health Canada and the US FDA. The purpose of this article is to briefly summarize the state-of-the-art in the field, to inform the research community of next steps, and to describe the path engaging collaborative laboratories in a proficiency test as the first step in moving forward toward acceptance of in vitro digestibility methods. Throughout, a consultative and iterative process will be utilized to ensure the program goals are met. Success will be achieved when the proposed path results in the acceptance of an in vitro methods for protein digestibility used for PDCAAS determinations, which will enable increased protein analyses and improved nutrition labeling of protein foods.

The relationship between cellular protein content and selenium accumulation in freshwater microalgae

Variability in the bioconcentration of selenium (Se) by primary producers at the base of the food web results in uncertainty in predictions of bioaccumulation and ecological risk to higher trophic level organisms. Water chemistry, speciation of Se, and periphyton community composition have all been suggested as factors that contribute to variability in bioconcentration by primary producers; however, the role of physiological composition of periphyton species in influencing the bioconcentration of Se has not been previously evaluated. To determine if a relationship exists between algal protein content and Se accumulation, Parachlorella kessleri, Chlorella vulgaris, and Raphidocelis subcapitata were exposed to Se (as selenate) and analyzed for total protein and tissue Se content in the exponential and stationary growth phases. Protein content and Se accumulation in R. subcapitata in the stationary phase were also measured under two light intensities. No relationship between cellular protein content and Se accumulation was found for algae in the exponential phase; however, a strong relationship was found in the stationary phase among species and for R. subcapitata under differing light intensities. Absolute Se accumulations by P. kessleri, C. vulgaris, and R. subcapitata in the stationary phase were statistically different; however, the concentrations of Se in protein were similar across species. These results suggest that cellular protein content in microalgae influences Se bioconcentration and that algal protein content may improve Se bioaccumulation modeling in food webs. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;00:1-10. © 2024 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Assessment of Protein Quality and Digestibility in Plant-Based Meat Analogues

In this first work, commercial steak-like (n = 3) and cured meat (n = 3) analogues with different legume and cereal formulations were studied and compared to their animal-based (n = 3) counterparts. Plant-based products showed lower protein content than meat controls but a good amino acidic profile even though the sum of essential amino acids of plant-cured meats does not fulfill the requirements set by the Food and Agriculture Organization for children. A comparable release of soluble proteins and peptides in the digestates after in vitro digestion was observed in meat analogues as meat products, whereas the digestibility of proteins was lower in plant-based steaks and higher in plant-based cured meats than their counterparts. The overall protein quality and digestibility of products are related to both the use of good blending of protein sources and processes applied to produce them. An adequate substitution of meat with its analogues depends mostly on the quality of raw materials used, which should be communicated to consumers.

Assessment of Cellulose Nanofiber-Based Elastase Biosensors to Inflammatory Disease as a Function of Spacer Length and Fluorescence Response

Inflammatory disease biomarker detection has become a high priority in point-of-care diagnostic research in relation to chronic wounds, with a variety of sensor-based designs becoming available. Herein, two primary aspects of biosensor design are examined: (1) assessment of a cellulose nanofiber (CNF) matrix derived from cotton ginning byproducts as a sensor transducer surface; and (2) assessment of the relation of spacer length and morphology between the CNF cellulose backbone and peptide fluorophore as a function of sensor activity for porcine pancreatic and human neutrophil elastases. X-ray crystallography, specific surface area, and pore size analyses confirmed the suitability of CNF as a matrix for wound care diagnostics. Based upon the normalized degree of substitution, a pegylated-linker connecting CNF transducer substrate to peptide fluorophore showed the greatest fluorescence response, compared to short- and long-chain alkylated linkers.

Options for substantiating protein content claims for conventional foods

In Canada and the United States, front-of-package protein content claims require data to support the quality of the protein. In general, protein quality reflects the product of the amino acid composition of the food protein relative to human amino acid requirements and a measure of digestibility. The currently accepted method in both jurisdictions is the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) that requires the measurement of true fecal protein (nitrogen) digestibility. The latter must be measured in vivo using a rat model. This requirement for animal testing is inconsistent with international efforts to reduce the usage of animals in testing for regulatory purposes. The current commentary positions four options to remove the need to use animal testing for determining protein quality, when considering protein content claim substantiation. These options include (i) a focus on protein quantity alone; (ii) the use of the amino acid score alone, with no correction for digestibility; (iii) the use of a fixed digestibility coefficient to estimate protein quality; and (iv) the use of in vitro methods to measure protein and/or amino acid digestibility. The relative merits and deficiencies of the options are positioned with the goal of encouraging dialogue within the regulatory agencies to move towards alternative approaches for substantiating protein content claims on foods, including those derived from plant-based sources.

Nutritional quality of the traditionally cooked Zamnè, a wild legume and a delicacy in Burkina Faso: assessment of the process effectiveness and the properties of cooking alkalis

Zamnè is a wild legume and a famine food that attracts interest for its health benefits and has become a delicacy in Burkina Faso. This study aimed to determine the nutritional quality of the traditionally cooked Zamnè, appreciate the effectiveness of the traditional cooking process, and compare the properties of the traditionally used cooking alkalis (i.e., potash or plant ash leachate and sodium bicarbonate). Yet, as shown, the traditional cooking of Zamnè is a very aggressive process that results in high disintegration of cell walls and membranes and leaching of most water-soluble constituents and nutrients (i.e., free amino acids, soluble nitrogen, sugars, soluble dietary fibers, and soluble phenolics). In addition, the extensive boiling and the cooking alkalis induced the sequestration of calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc, significantly impairing their bioaccessibility. Despite the difference in the modus operandi of the cooking alkalis, there was no significant difference in the cooking outcomes. The traditionally cooked Zamnè presented high dietary protein (4.8 g), lipid (3.3 g), fiber (6.7-7.7 g), and metabolizable energy (63-65 kcal) contents (per 100 g fresh weight). Most antinutritional factors (i.e., non-protein nitrogen, tannins, and trypsin inhibitors) were eliminated. The proteins were relatively well preserved despite the aggressive alkaline processing. They demonstrated an appreciable digestibility (75%) and predicted PER (1.5) and a fairly balanced essential amino acid composition - which should completely meet the requirements for adults. The lipid content and composition were also well preserved and contained predominantly linoleic (C18:2n-6), oleic (C18:1c9), stearic (C18:0), and palmitic (C16:0) acids (33, 34, 10, and 15% total fatty acids, respectively). Overall, though extensive alkaline cooking seems a straightforward option to overcome the hard-to-cook problem of Zamnè, processing alternatives might be useful to reduce nutrient losses, improve the digestibility of the final product, and capture its full nutritional value.

Bioaccessibility and Digestibility of Proteins in Plant-Based Drinks and Cow's Milk: Antioxidant Potential of the Bioaccessible Fraction

During the last years, a strong increase in the sales volume and consumption of plant-based drinks was observed, which were partly used as an alternative to cow's milk. As milk is a relevant protein source in many countries, we have investigated the protein bioaccessibility and digestibility of soy, almond, and oat drinks in comparison to milk using the tiny-TIMsg gastrointestinal model. The relative protein digestibility of all products was between 81% (soy drink) and 90% (milk). The digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) in vitro method was used to estimate the protein nutritional quality. The highest DIAAS values were obtained for milk in tryptophan (117%) and soy drink in sulfur containing amino acids (100%). Oat drink was limited in lysine (73%), almond drink in lysine (34%) and the sulfur containing amino acids (56%). Additionally, the antioxidant activity of the bioaccessible fractions was analyzed using Trolox equivalent antioxidative capacity and oxygen radical absorbance capacity assays, revealing a higher antioxidative potential of milk and soy drink compared to oat and almond drink.

Effects of dietary fiber and biotic supplementation on apparent total tract macronutrient digestibility and the fecal characteristics, metabolites, and microbiota of healthy adult dogs

Dietary fibers and biotics have been shown to support gastrointestinal health in dogs, but are usually tested individually. There is value in testing fiber-biotic combinations that are commonly used commercially. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the apparent total tract macronutrient digestibility (ATTD) of diets supplemented with fibers or biotics and to evaluate their effects on the fecal characteristics, metabolites, microbiota, and immunoglobulin A (IgA) concentrations of dogs. Twelve healthy adult female beagle dogs (age = 6.2 ± 1.6 yr; body weight = 9.5 ± 1.1 kg) were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design to test three treatments: 1) control diet based on rice, chicken meal, tapioca starch, and cellulose + a placebo treat (CT); 2) diet based on rice, chicken meal, garbanzo beans, and cellulose + a placebo treat (GB); 3) diet based on rice, chicken meal, garbanzo beans, and a functional fiber/prebiotic blend + a probiotic-containing treat (GBPP). In each 28-d period, a 22-d diet adaptation was followed by a 5-d fecal collection phase. Fasted blood samples were collected on day 28. Data were analyzed using the Mixed Models procedure of SAS 9.4, with P < 0.05 being significant and P < 0.10 being trends. ATTD of dry matter (DM), organic matter, and energy were lower (P < 0.001) and DM fecal output was higher (P < 0.01) in dogs fed GBPP than CT or GB, whereas ATTD of crude protein was higher (P < 0.001) in dogs fed CT and GBPP than GB. ATTD of fat was higher (P < 0.001) and wet fecal output was lower (P < 0.01) in dogs fed CT than GB or GBPP. Fecal DM% was higher (P < 0.001) in dogs fed CT than GBPP or GB, and higher in dogs fed GBPP than GB. Fecal short-chain fatty acid concentrations were higher (P < 0.001) in dogs fed GB than CT or GBPP, and higher in dogs fed GB than GBPP. Fecal IgA concentrations were higher (P < 0.01) in dogs fed GB than CT. Fecal microbiota populations were affected by diet, with alpha diversity being higher (P < 0.01) in dogs fed GB than CT, and beta diversity shifting following dietary fiber and biotic supplementation. The relative abundance of 24 bacterial genera was altered in dogs fed GB or GBPP than CT. Serum triglyceride concentrations were lower in dogs fed GB than GBPP or CT. Our results demonstrate that legume-based dietary fibers, with or without prebiotics and probiotics, reduce ATTD, increase stool output, beneficially shift fecal metabolites and microbiota, and reduce blood lipids in adult dogs.

Protein - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023

Proteins are needed for providing essential amino acids, nitrogen, and fuel for the body's needs in all age groups. Proteins are especially required during active growth in pregnancy, lactation, childhood, and tissue growth in general. An adequate protein intake is needed in old adults to avoid premature muscle loss. According to the current dietary surveys, protein intake in the Nordic and Baltic countries varies from 15 to 19% of the total energy intake in adults. Comprehensive data regarding children and older adults are lacking. No good measure for protein status exists, and the estimation of physiological requirements is based on N-balance studies having some weaknesses. Protein quality is assessed by considering the protein digestibility of individual indispensable amino acids and their utilization (bioavailability), which is affected by food antinutrients and processing. The evidence regarding the association of protein intake per se with health outcomes is limited or suggestive. It is difficult to separate from the effect of other nutrients or ingredients in protein-rich foods. Proteins are widespread in foods, deriving from both animal and plant sources. Animal-sourced protein production puts more strain on the environment than plant-sourced proteins and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, thereby enhancing climate change. In Nordic and Baltic countries, consumption of animal-sourced proteins is relatively high. A shift toward more plant-based protein diets would be advisable for promoting a healthy and sustainable diet.

A novel approach for the protein determination in food-relevant microalgae

Microalgae are gaining interest as food ingredient. Assessments of functional and nutritional properties are necessary to forward their implementation. In this study, protein content and composition of eight commercially available microalgae biomasses were determined and compared to conventional food proteins. A novel procedure for the determination of the true protein content was proposed: Multiplication of proteinic nitrogen with a sample-specific nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor kA. The proteinic nitrogen was derived from the difference of total nitrogen minus non-protein nitrogen. The average kA for microalgae was 5.3 and considerable variation between different microalgae biomasses were detected. In addition, the content of non-protein nitrogen varied between 3.4% and 15.4%. The amino acid profiles of Chlorella samples were nutritionally superior to the tested plant proteins but indicated lower protein interaction tendency, potentially limiting their structuring functionality. In contrast, Auxenochlorella contained lower amounts of indispensable amino acids while showing comparable interaction potential to plant proteins.

Comparison of protein quality and digestibility between plant-based and meat-based burgers

Nowadays, consumers are increasingly inclined toward plant-based meat analogues for sake of food security, safety, and sustainability. This growing interest, not only from consumers but also from food companies, brought the offer on the market to be wide and vast. From our previous study it emerged that the market supply, especially the Italian one, is diversified both in terms of protein sources and nutrient content. Although these products are increasingly consumed, for most of the meat analogues today on the market, little is still known about their actual protein quality and digestibility. To fill this gap, in this study different commercial plant-based burgers (2 soy-based and 2 pea-based) were selected and compared to two beef burgers, as controls, in terms of protein quality and digestibility. The findings of this study demonstrated the essential amino acidic profile lacks lysine for almost all burgers (including the meat-based ones) compared to the amino acid scoring pattern set by FAO/WHO (for older children and adults), even if the sum of essential amino acids was within the range of sufficiency. All samples showed good initial protein integrity with low hydrolysis (above 6%) and percentage of D-enantiomers (above 15%). The study of the digestibility, performed by the validated INFOGEST in vitro model, showed better protein solubilisation in the case of meat burgers (63 ± 3% and 61 ± 8%), but a good digestibility also in the case of plant-based ones (from 55% to 40%). The degree of hydrolysis of the solubilised proteins was very high in all samples (from 65% to 40%) indicating a very good protein accessibility to digestive enzymes. The analysis of the peptide fraction of digestates indicated a high prevalence of collagen proteins in beef burgers and of reserve proteins in plant-based burgers. This study showed that the differences between these products are mostly dependent on the quality of the raw materials used, rather than on the vegetal or animal protein source. Therefore, to have a product with a good protein quality and digestibility, independently from the protein origin, the consumer needs to make an accurate choice, carefully reading the ingredient list.

Hydraulic Retention Time as an Operational Tool for the Production of Short-Chain Carboxylates via Anaerobic Fermentation of Carbohydrate-Rich Waste

The carboxylate platform is a sustainable and cost-effective way to valorize wastes into biochemicals that replace those of fossil origin. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are intermediates generated during anaerobic fermentation (AF) and are considered high-value-added biochemicals among carboxylates. This investigation aimed to produce SCFAs through the AF of sugar beet molasses at 25 °C and semi-continuous feeding mode in completely stirred tank reactors. A particular focus was devoted to the role of hydraulic retention time (HRT) variation in SCFAs production and distribution profile. The highest SCFAs concentration (44.1 ± 2.3 gCOD/L) was reached at the HRT of 30 days. Caproic acid accounted for 32.5-35.5% (COD-concentration basis) at the long HRTs of 20 and 30 days due to the carbon chain elongation of shorter carboxylic acids. The findings of this study proved that HRT could be used to steer the anaerobic process toward the targeted SCFAs for specific uses. Furthermore, the successful operation at low-temperature conditions (i.e., 25 °C) makes the process economically promising.

Microbial protein production from sulfide-rich biogas through an enrichment of methane- and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria

This study evaluated the possibility of combining methane oxidizing bacteria (MOB) with sulfur oxidizing bacteria (SOB) to enable the utilization of sulfide-rich biogas for microbial protein production. For this purpose, a MOB-SOB mixed-culture enriched by feeding both methane and sulfide was benchmarked against an enrichment of solely MOB. Different CH₄:O₂ ratios, starting pH values, sulfide levels and nitrogen sources were tested and evaluated for the two enrichments. The MOB-SOB culture gave promising results in terms of both biomass yield (up to 0.07±0.01 g VSS/g CH₄-COD) and protein content (up to 73±5% of VSS) at 1500 ppm of equivalent H₂S. The latter enrichment was able to grow also under acidic pH (5.8-7.0), but as inhibited outside the optimal CH₄:O₂ ratio of 2:3. The obtained results show the capability of MOB-SOB mixed-cultures to directly upcycle sulfide-rich biogas into microbial protein potentially suited for feed, food or biobased product applications.

Panicum decompositum, an Australian Native Grass, Has Strong Potential as a Novel Grain in the Modern Food Market

Native Millet (Panicum decompositum) is a native grass species that was used as a staple food by many Australian Aboriginal communities. In this study, the potential for using Native Millet (NM) as a novel flour in the modern food market was investigated. Intact grain and white and wholemeal flours from two populations of NM were compared to bread wheat cv. Spitfire (SW) using a range of physical and chemical tests. The baking properties of NM flour were assessed using basic flatbreads made with 25:75 and 50:50 (NM:SW) mixes of wholemeal flour with 100% SW wholemeal flour used as the control. The grain size of NM was found to be smaller than SW. Milling yield, defined as the proportion of flour obtained from a whole seed, for NM was 4-10% lower than SW under the same moisture conditions used for tempering (drying) wheat. The properties of wholemeal flour indicated that NM flour has lower viscosity and low flour pasting ability compared to SW. This is likely due to the low starch content and high fibre content of NM seed. Wholemeal flour derived from NM had a protein content of 13.6% compared to 12.1% for SW. Based on a sensory analysis using an untrained panel, the distinct colour and texture may negatively affect the acceptance of NM flour by the consumer, but taste and aroma was not found to differ among samples. There were strong indications that the novelty of NM flour may help outweigh any limitations to consumer acceptance, making it a valuable product in future food markets.

Identification of predominant aroma components of dried pea protein concentrates and isolates

Pea protein is a growing plant-based protein ingredient. Pea proteins have characteristic undesirable flavors, leading to challenges in ingredient applications. The objective of this study was to characterize the flavor of pea proteins using descriptive sensory analysis and instrumental volatile compound analyses. Seven sensory attributes were identified in most pea proteins at variable intensities: cereal/grain, cardboard, green pea, beany/yellow pea, bitter, umami, and astringent. Other attributes, cheesy, doughy, sulfur, pyrazine, fecal, sweet aromatic and salty taste, were distinguishing flavors of some pea proteins (p < 0.05). The key aroma-active compounds in pea proteins were hexanal, heptanal, benzaldehyde, methional, 2-hexanone, 2-heptanone, 1-octen-3-one, 2-nonanone, 1-nonen-3-one, 1-pentanol, 2-pentyl furan, 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine, 2,5-dimethyl-3-(3-methylbutyl)-pyrazine and 2-methyl-isoborneol (present in all representative samples). Volatile compounds responsible for the majority of sample variation included 2-methyl butanal, (Z)-3-hexanal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 1-octen-3-one, 2-decanone, 1-pentanol, 1-octen-3-ol, geosmin and 2,3-diethyl-5-methyl pyrazine (p < 0.05). This study can facilitate product development and flavor masking of various pea protein applications.

Effect of high-pressure homogenization on Ca2+ -induced gel formation of soybean 11 S globulin

BACKGROUND

High-pressure homogenization (HPH) is commonly used as a non-thermal processing technique for soybean and soy protein products, and the preparation of soy protein gel products often requires the synergistic effect of HPH and heat treatment. The dissociative association behavior of 11 S is the key to the protein gel formation state. In this study, therefore, 11 S thermal gels were prepared by high-pressure homogenization and co-induction (90 °C, 30 min) (adding Ca²⁺ to promote gel formation before heat treatment), and the effects of different high-pressure homogenization pressures (0-100 MPa) and co-treatment on the dissociative association behavior of 11 S protein, gel properties, and microstructure of 11 S gels were investigated.

RESULTS

The results showed that HPH at higher pressures led to the breaking of disulfide bonds of aggregates and disrupted non-covalent interactions in protein aggregates, leading to collisions between protein aggregates and the reduction of large protein aggregates. High-pressure homogenization treatment at 60 MPa improved the gel properties of 11 S more. The HPH combined with heating changed the binary and tertiary structure of 11 S soy globulin and enhanced the hydrophobic interaction between 11 S molecules, thus improving the gel properties of 11 S. The change in intermolecular forces reflected the positive effect of HPH treatment on the formation of denser and more homogeneous protein gels.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, high-pressure homogenization combined with heating can improve the properties of 11 S gels by changing the structure of 11 S protein, providing data and theoretical support for soy protein processing and its further applications. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Physicochemical Characteristics, Techno-Functionalities, and Amino Acid Profile of Prionoplus reticularis (Huhu) Larvae and Pupae Protein Extracts

The amino acid profile, techno-functionalities (foaming stability/capacity, emulsion stability/capacity, solubility, and coagulation), and physicochemical characteristics (colour, particle size, surface hydrophobicity, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry) of protein extracts (PE) obtained from Prionoplus reticularis (Huhu grub) larvae (HLPE) and pupae (HPPE) were investigated. Total essential amino acid contents of 386.7 and 411.7 mg/g protein were observed in HLPE and HPPE, respectively. The essential amino acid index (EAAI) was 3.3 and 3.4 for HLPE and HPPE, respectively, demonstrating their nutritional equivalence. A unique nitrogen-to-protein conversion constant, k, and the corresponding protein content of the extracts were 6.1 and 6.4 and 72.1% and 76.5%, respectively. HLPE (37.1 J/g) had a lower enthalpy than HPPE (54.1 J/g). HPPE (1% w/v) exhibited a foaming capacity of 50.7%, which was higher than that of HLPE (41.7%) at 150 min. The foaming stability was 75.3% for HLPE and 73.1% for HPPE after 120 min. Both protein extracts (1% w/v) had emulsifying capacities that were 96.8% stable after 60 min. Therefore, protein extracts from Huhu larvae and pupae are of a good nutritional quality (based on their EAAI) and have techno-functional properties, such as foaming and emulsification, that afford them potential for certain food technology applications.

Will It Cricket? Product Development and Evaluation of Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder Replacement in Sausage, Pasta, and Brownies

Insect powders used in food products may lower the overall quality when compared to conventional counterparts. This preliminary study was used to develop and evaluate insect-based food products and to utilize them in a future consumer test. Pork sausage, dried pasta, and chocolate brownie formulations were developed to either contain NO cricket powder (Control) or have cricket powder (CP). The products were evaluated for proximate composition and product-dependent parameters. The protein content increased in the CP pasta and brownies (p < 0.05) while no changes were found in the sausage (p > 0.05). Fat content increased in both the CP pasta and brownies while it decreased in the CP sausage (p < 0.05). The CP sausage had a higher carbohydrate content than the Control (p < 0.05). Overall, this may be attributed to cricket powder being high in protein and fat while also containing dietary fiber. Cricket powder replacement may lead to noticeable color differences by increasing green and blue coloring in sausage and pasta (p < 0.05). Changes in textural properties (p < 0.05) may be attributed to cricket powder affecting protein solubility and emulsion stability in sausage while gluten formation may be interfered with in the brownies. Overall, cricket powder replacement had improved nutritional content with minor changes in quality parameters.

Nutritional, Phytochemical, and In Vitro Antioxidant Activity Analysis of Different States of Soy Products

Consumer demand for food nutritional content and quality is driving the design of plant-based foods that are enhanced with proteins. In this study, we aimed to reveal the nutrient compositional differences of various states of soy flours. We compared soy protein concentrate (SPC) with full fat (FF), raw soy flour (RSF), and defatted (DF) soy flour for investigating nutritional content, phytochemicals, and in vitro antioxidant activity. The results showed that the SPC contained significantly (p < 0.001) higher protein content (65.14%) and low-fat content (0.54%) than RSF, FF, and DF. Furthermore, the findings revealed that all products contain a significant (ANOVA, p < 0.001) amount of essential minerals. The RSF contains significantly higher (p < 0.001) potassium (1178.6 mg), calcium (216.77 mg), and magnesium (247 mg) per 100 g than FF, DF, and SPC. SPC contains essential amino acids, but we were unable to detect phenylalanine and tryptophan due to a limitation in the method. Furthermore, using methanolic and aqueous extracts of RSF, FF, DF, and SPC, the flavonoid, phenolics, and antioxidant capacity were also evaluated. According to the findings, soy products in methanolic extract had higher phenolic (about 12-34 mg/g) and flavonoid (about 63-150 mg/g) levels than aqueous extract. Results also demonstrated that FF had higher phenolic content, and SPC had higher flavonoid content than the other products. In vitro models such as phosphomolybdenum blue, FRAP, DPPH, and ABTS assays were used to study the total antioxidant and free radical scavenging potential of soy products, and results found that soy products contained a significant (p < 0.001) amount of antioxidant equivalent to gallic acid and vitamin C standard. In the DPPH and ABTS assays, the results also showed that soy products can reduce free radicals in different in vitro models. Altogether, these findings suggest that soy flours, particularly DF and SPC, could be a beneficial food ingredient in the formulation of functional foods.

Direct nitrogen stripping and upcycling from anaerobic digestate during conversion of cheese whey into single cell protein

The environmental impact of the dairy industry is heavily influenced by the overproduction of nitrogen- and carbon-rich effluents. The present study proposes an innovative process to recover waste contaminated nitrogen from anaerobic digestate while treating excess cheese whey (CW) and producing high-quality, clean single cell protein (SCP). By relying on direct aeration stripping techniques, employing an airflow subsequently used in the aerobic cheese whey fermentation step, the investigated process was able to strip 41-80% of the total ammonium nitrogen (N-NH₄⁺) from liquid digestate. The stripped ammonia gas (NH₃) was completely recovered as N-NH₄⁺ in the acidic CW, and further upcycled into SCP having a total protein content of 74.7% and a balanced amino acids profile. A preliminary techno-economic analysis revealed the potential to directly recover and upcycle nitrogen into SCP at costs (4.3-6.3 €·kgN^-1) and energetic inputs (90-132 MJ·kgN^-1) matching those of conventional feed and nitrogen management processes.

A New Biosurfactant/Bioemulsifier from Gordonia alkanivorans Strain 1B: Production and Characterization

Biosurfactants and bioemulsifiers (BS/BE) are naturally synthesized molecules, which can be used as alternatives to traditional detergents. These molecules are commonly produced by microorganisms isolated from hydrocarbon-rich environments. Gordonia alkanivorans strain 1B was originally found in such an environment, however little was known about its abilities as a BS/BE producer. The goal of this work was to access the potential of strain 1B as a BS/BE producer and perform the initial characterization of the produced compounds. It was demonstrated that strain 1B was able to synthesize lipoglycoprotein compounds with BS/BE properties, both extracellularly and adhered to the cells, without the need for a hydrophobic inducer, producing emulsion in several different hydrophobic phases. Using a crude BS/BE powder, the critical micelle concentration was determined (CMC = 16.94 mg/L), and its capacity to reduce the surface tension to a minimum of 35.63 mN/m was demonstrated, surpassing many commercial surfactants. Moreover, after dialysis, emulsification assays revealed an activity similar to that of Triton X-100 in almond and sunflower oils. In benzene, the E24 value attained was 83.45%, which is 30% greater than that of the commercial alternative. The results obtained highlight for the presence of promising novel BS/BE produced by strain 1B.

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction of bioactive chlorogenic acid from heilong48 soybean variety: Parametric optimization and evaluation of physicochemical and bioactive properties

Chlorogenic acid (CA), especially that found in soybeans, is a rich bioactive compound but has received very little attention in research settings in past decades. Ultrasonic‐assisted extraction (UAE) could be an efficient method to increase CA release from soybeans. Hence, this study aimed to optimize UAE parameters for CA extraction from heilong48 soybean (HS) variety and evaluate the physicochemical and bioactive properties of the soybean. Optimization of ultrasound parameters with a Box–Behnken design found a frequency of 20.0 kHz, a power density of 30.0 W/L), a temperature of 37.9°C, and a time of 28.0 min to be the best conditions, which gave a CA yield of 5.007 ± 0.033 mg/g and 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of 93.197 ± 0.213 μmol of AA eq/g dry sample; these were higher than those of a non–ultrasound‐treated (raw) HS sample (CA yield of 1.627 ± 0.528 mg/g and DPPH radical scavenging activity of 10.760 ± 0.207 μmol of AA eq/g dry sample). A satisfactory model was obtained. Scanning electron microscopy results confirmed the structural changes of the HS variety caused by the optimized UAE parameters. High total polyphenol contents (TPCs; 4.726 ± 0.002 mg GAE/g) and total phenolic acids (1.883 ± 0.005 mg GAE/g) and low total flavonoid contents (0.040 ± 0.008 mg RE/g) were obtained. A positive linear correlation between antioxidant activity and TPC was established. A protein–phenolic interaction in the HS variety was observed. The results established that polyphenols should be considered a significant component of the HS variety. Likewise, the HS variety could be used for CA extraction.

Going beyond conventional wastewater treatment plants within circular bioeconomy concept - a sustainability assessment study

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) have extensive energy processes that undermine their economic and environmental performance. In this context, the integration of wastewater treatment with other biochemical processes such as co-digestion of sludge with organic wastes, and production of value-added products at their downstream processes will shift conventional WWTPs into biorefinery platforms with better sustainability performance. The sustainability of such a biorefinery platform has been investigated herein using an economic and life cycle assessment approach. This WWTP-based biorefinery treats wastewater from Copenhagen municipality, co-digests the source-sorted organic fraction of municipal solid waste and sludge, and upgrades biogas into biomethane using a hydrogen-assisted upgrading method. Apart from bioenergy, this biorefinery also produces microbial protein (MP) using recovered nutrients from WWTP's reject water. The net environmental savings achieved in two damage categories, i.e., -1.07 × 10^-2 species.yr/FU in ecosystem quality and -1.68 × 10⁶ USD/FU in resource scarcity damage categories along with high potential windows for the further environmental profile improvements make this biorefinery platform so encouraging. Despite being promising in terms of environmental performance, the high capital expenditure and low gross profit have undermined the economic performance of the proposed biorefinery. Technological improvements, process optimization, and encouraging incentives/subsidies are still needed to make this platform economically feasible.

Factors Influencing Proteolysis and Protein Utilization in the Intestine of Pigs: A Review

Pigs are among the most important farm animals for meat production worldwide. In order to meet the amino acid requirements of the animals, pigs rely on the regular intake of proteins and amino acids with their feed. Unfortunately, pigs excrete about two thirds of the used protein, and production of pork is currently associated with a high emission of nitrogen compounds resulting in negative impacts on the environment. Thus, improving protein efficiency in pigs is a central aim to decrease the usage of protein carriers in feed and to lower nitrogen emissions. This is necessary as the supply of plant protein sources is limited by the yield and the cultivable acreage for protein plants. Strategies to increase protein efficiency that go beyond the known feeding options have to be investigated considering the characteristics of the individual animals. This requires a deep understanding of the intestinal processes including enzymatic activities, capacities of amino acid transporters and the microbiome. This review provides an overview of these physiological factors and the respective analyses methods.

Bacillus sp. and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi consortia enhance wheat nutrient and yield in the second-year field trial: Superior performance in comparison with chemical fertilizers

AIMS

The aim of the study is to analyse the effect of microbial consortia for wheat biofortification, growth, yield and soil fertility as part of a 2-year field study and compare it with the use of chemical fertilizers.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A field trial (second year) was conducted with various combinations of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) treatments, ranging from a single inoculant to multiple combinations. The microbial consortia used were Bacillus sp. and AMF based on first-year field trial results. The consortia based on native (CP4) and non-native (AHP3) PGPB (Bacillus sp.) and AMF performed better in terms of nutrients content in wheat grain tissue and yield-related traits compared with chemical fertilizer treated and untreated control. Dual treatment of PGPB (CP4+AHP3) combined with AMF resulted in a significant increase in antioxidants. The spatial colonization of AMF in roots indicated that both the isolates CP4 and AHP3 were able to enhance the AMF colonization in root tissue. Furthermore, soil enzymes' activities were higher with the PGPB and AMF combination giving the best results. A positive correlation was recorded between plant growth, grain yield and soil physicochemical parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings confirm that the combined treatment of CP4 and AHP3 and AMF functions as an effective microbial consortium with excellent application prospects for wheat biofortification, grain yield and soil fertility compared with chemical fertilizers.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY

The extensive application of chemical fertilizers on low-yielding field sites is a severe concern for cereal crops, especially wheat in the Asian continent. This study serves as a primer for implementing site-specific sustainable agricultural-management practices using a green technology leading to significant gains in agriculture.

Characteristics of Soy Protein Prepared Using an Aqueous Ethanol Washing Process

Currently, the predominant process for soy protein concentrate (SPC) production is aqueous ethanol washing of hexane-extracted soy meal. However, the use of hexane is less desired, which explains the increased interest in cold pressing for oil removal. In this study, cold-pressed soy meal was used as the starting material, and a range of water/ethanol ratios was applied for the washing process to produce SPCs. Washing enriched the protein content for the SPCs, regardless of the solvent used. However, we conclude that washing with water (0% ethanol) or solvents with a high water/ethanol ratio (60% and above) can be more advantageous. Washing with a high water/ethanol ratio resulted in the highest yield, and SPCs with the highest protein solubility and water holding capacity. The water-only washed SPC showed the highest viscosity, and formed gels with the highest gel strength and hardness among all the SPCs at a similar protein concentration. The variations in the functionality among the SPCs were attributed to protein changes, although the effects of non-protein constituents such as sugar and oil might also be important. Overall, the aqueous ethanol washing process combined with cold-pressed soy meal created SPCs comparable to commercial SPC in terms of composition, but with varied functionalities that are relevant for novel soy-food developments.

Progress in thermochemical conversion of duckweed and upgrading of the bio-oil: A critical review

The processing of duckweed has been included in the list of promising pathways for biofuels production. This property is attributed to its simple manual harvesting method and its ability for high protein or starch content, depending on its species and growing environment. The biofuels production from duckweed, is not only a solution to energy and environmental problems, but also a reliable way to realize the utilization of duckweed. This critical review focuses on the bio-oil production from duckweed via pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction processes. First, characteristics and eco-environmental benefits of duckweed are reviewed. Next, the impacts of different parameters on the properties and distribution of bio-oil from pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction are discussed in detail. Subsequently, the effect of hydrogen donor solvents (as reaction media for upgrading) and catalysts on the upgrading of duckweed bio-oil are extensively discussed. This paper ends with the prospects for further development in thermochemical valorization of duckweed.

Bacteria from native soil in combination with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi augment wheat yield and biofortification

Plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) have been used to enhance crop productivity. The effect of native PGPB and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in combination on wheat yield, biofortification and soil enzymatic activity is a relatively unexplored area. Twenty seven bacterial isolates from three different soils were characterized for their plant growth promoting traits. A total of three native and five non-native bacteria were used with and without arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in an open greenhouse pot experiment with two wheat varieties to evaluate their effect on wheat yield, nutrient uptake, and soil health parameters. Wheat plants subjected to native PGPB (CP4) (Bacillus subtilis) and AM fungi treatment gave the best results with reference to macronutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus), micronutrient (iron and zinc) content in wheat grains and yield-related parameters, including thousand grain weight, number of grains per spike and total tillers per plant in both wheat cultivars. Treatment with CP4 and CP4 plus AM fungi enhanced total chlorophyll in wheat leaves indicating higher photosynthetic activity. Significant improvement in soil health-related parameters, including soil organic matter and dehydrogenase activity, was observed. Significant correlation among grain yield-related parameters, nutrient enhancement, and soil health parameters was observed in PGPB and AM fungi treated plants, especially HD-3086. These results provide a roadmap for utilizing native PGPB and AM fungi for enhancing wheat production in Punjab state of India and exploring their utility in other parts of the country with different soil and environmental conditions.