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Khodadadi Yazdi M, Seidi F, Hejna A, Zarrintaj P, Rabiee N, Kucinska-Lipka J, Saeb MR, Bencherif SA. Tailor-Made Polysaccharides for Biomedical Applications. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2024. [PMID: 38958361 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c01199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Polysaccharides (PSAs) are carbohydrate-based macromolecules widely used in the biomedical field, either in their pure form or in blends/nanocomposites with other materials. The relationship between structure, properties, and functions has inspired scientists to design multifunctional PSAs for various biomedical applications by incorporating unique molecular structures and targeted bulk properties. Multiple strategies, such as conjugation, grafting, cross-linking, and functionalization, have been explored to control their mechanical properties, electrical conductivity, hydrophilicity, degradability, rheological features, and stimuli-responsiveness. For instance, custom-made PSAs are known for their worldwide biomedical applications in tissue engineering, drug/gene delivery, and regenerative medicine. Furthermore, the remarkable advancements in supramolecular engineering and chemistry have paved the way for mission-oriented biomaterial synthesis and the fabrication of customized biomaterials. These materials can synergistically combine the benefits of biology and chemistry to tackle important biomedical questions. Herein, we categorize and summarize PSAs based on their synthesis methods, and explore the main strategies used to customize their chemical structures. We then highlight various properties of PSAs using practical examples. Lastly, we thoroughly describe the biomedical applications of tailor-made PSAs, along with their current existing challenges and potential future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Khodadadi Yazdi
- Division of Electrochemistry and Surface Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Physics and Mathematics, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
- Advanced Materials Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Farzad Seidi
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources and International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Aleksander Hejna
- Institute of Materials Technology, Poznan University of Technology, PL-61-138 Poznań, Poland
| | - Payam Zarrintaj
- School of Chemical Engineering, Oklahoma State University, 420 Engineering North, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Navid Rabiee
- Department of Biomaterials, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, SIMATS, Saveetha University, Chennai 600077, India
| | - Justyna Kucinska-Lipka
- Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Mohammad Reza Saeb
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Medical University of Gdańsk, J. Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Sidi A Bencherif
- Chemical Engineering Department, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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2
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Tutoni GG, McDonald SM, Zhong R, Lu A, Huang TJ, Becker ML. Microfluidic Assembly of Degradable, Stereocomplexed Hydrogel Microparticles. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:14705-14714. [PMID: 38749060 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c02317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Hydrogel microparticles (HMPs) have been investigated widely for their use in tissue engineering and drug delivery applications. However, translation of these highly tunable systems has been hindered by covalent cross-linking methods within microparticles. Stereocomplexation, a stereospecific form of physical cross-linking, provides a robust yet degradable alternative for creating translationally relevant HMPs. Herein, 4-arm polyethylene glycol (PEG) stars were used as macromolecular initiators from which oligomeric poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) was polymerized with a degree of polymerization (DPn) of 20 on each arm. Similarly, complementary propargyl-containing ABA cross-linkers with enantiomeric poly(d-lactic acid) (PDLA) segments (DPn = 20) on each arm. Droplets of these gel precursors were formed via a microfluidic organic-in-oil-in-water system where microparticles self-assembled via stereocomplexation and were stabilized after precipitation in deionized water. By varying the flow rate of the dispersed phase, well-defined microparticles with diameters of 33.7 ± 0.5, 62.4 ± 0.6, and 105.7 ± 0.8 μm were fabricated. Gelation due to stereocomplexation was confirmed via wide-angle X-ray scattering in which HMPs exhibited the signature diffraction pattern of stereocomplexed PLA at 2θ = 12.2, 21.2, 24.2°. Differential scanning calorimetry also confirmed stereocomplexation by the appearance of a crystallization exotherm (Tc = 37 °C) and a high-temperature endotherm (Tm = 159 °C) that does not appear in the homocrystallization of PLLA or the hydrogel precursors. Additionally, the propargyl handle present on the cross-linker allows for pre- or post-assembly thiol-yne "click" functionalization as demonstrated by the addition of thiol-containing fluorophores to the HMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianna G Tutoni
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Samantha M McDonald
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Ruoyu Zhong
- Thomas Lord Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Annette Lu
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Tony Jun Huang
- Thomas Lord Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Matthew L Becker
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Thomas Lord Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
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3
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Mastrangelo R, Resta C, Carretti E, Fratini E, Baglioni P. Sponge-like Cryogels from Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation: Structure, Porosity, and Diffusional Gel Properties. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:46428-46439. [PMID: 37515546 PMCID: PMC10561144 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c03239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Macroporous gels find application in several scientific fields, ranging from art restoration to wastewater filtration or cell entrapment. In this work, two-component sponge-like cryogels are challenged to assess their cleaning performances and to investigate how pores size and connectivity affect physico-chemical properties. The gels were obtained through a freeze-thaw process, exploiting a spontaneous polymer-polymer phase-separation occurring in the pre-gel solution. During the freezing step, a highly hydrolyzed polyvinyl alcohol (H-PVA) forms the hydrogel walls. The secondary components, namely a partially hydrolyzed polyvinyl alcohol (L-PVA) or polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), act as modular porogens, being partially extracted during gel washing. H-PVA/L-PVA and H-PVA/PVP mixtures were studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy to unveil sols and gels morphology at the micron-scale, while small angle X-ray scattering was used to get insights about characteristic dimensions at the nanoscale. The gelation mechanism was investigated through rheology measurements, and the characteristic exponents were compared to De Gennes' scaling laws gathered from percolation. In the field of art conservation, these sponge-like gels are ideal systems for the cleaning of artistic painted surfaces. Their interconnected pores allow the diffusion of cleaning fluids at the painted interface, facilitating dirt uptake and/or detachment. This study uncovered a direct relationship linking a gel's cleaning performance to its apparent tortuosity. These findings can pave the way to fine-tuning systems with enhanced cleaning abilities, not restricted to the restoration of irreplaceable priceless works of art, but with possible application in diverse research fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosangela Mastrangelo
- Department of Chemistry and CSGI, University of Florence, via della Lastruccia, 3, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
| | - Claudio Resta
- Department of Chemistry and CSGI, University of Florence, via della Lastruccia, 3, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
| | - Emiliano Carretti
- Department of Chemistry and CSGI, University of Florence, via della Lastruccia, 3, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
| | - Emiliano Fratini
- Department of Chemistry and CSGI, University of Florence, via della Lastruccia, 3, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
| | - Piero Baglioni
- Department of Chemistry and CSGI, University of Florence, via della Lastruccia, 3, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence 50019, Italy
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Rostami N, Gomari MM, Abdouss M, Moeinzadeh A, Choupani E, Davarnejad R, Heidari R, Bencherif SA. Synthesis and Characterization of Folic Acid-Functionalized DPLA-co-PEG Nanomicelles for the Targeted Delivery of Letrozole. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2023; 6:1806-1815. [PMID: 37093754 PMCID: PMC10629236 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
An effective treatment for hormone-dependent breast cancer is chemotherapy using cytotoxic agents such as letrozole (LTZ). However, most anticancer drugs, including LTZ, are classified as class IV biopharmaceuticals, which are associated with low water solubility, poor bioavailability, and significant toxicity. As a result, developing a targeted delivery system for LTZ is critical for overcoming these challenges and limitations. Here, biodegradable LTZ-loaded nanocarriers were synthesized by solvent emulsification evaporation using nanomicelles prepared with dodecanol-polylactic acid-co-polyethylene glycol (DPLA-co-PEG). Furthermore, cancer cell-targeting folic acid (FA) was conjugated into the nanomicelles to achieve a more effective and safer cancer treatment. During our investigation, DPLA-co-PEG and DPLA-co-PEG-FA displayed a uniform and spherical morphology. The average diameters of DPLA-co-PEG and DPLA-co-PEG-FA nanomicelles were 86.5 and 241.3 nm, respectively. Our preliminary data suggest that both nanoformulations were cytocompatible, with ≥90% cell viability across all concentrations tested. In addition, the amphiphilic nature of the nanomicelles led to high drug loading and dispersion in water, resulting in the extended release of LTZ for up to 50 h. According to the Higuchi model, nanomicelles functionalized with FA have a greater potential for the controlled delivery of LTZ into target cells. This model was confirmed experimentally, as LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG-FA was significantly and specifically more cytotoxic (up to 90% cell death) toward MCF-7 cells, a hormone-dependent human breast cancer cell line, when compared to free LTZ and LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG. Furthermore, a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 87 ± 1 nM was achieved when MCF-7 cells were exposed to LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG-FA, whereas higher doses of 125 ± 2 and 100 ± 2 nM were required for free LTZ and LTZ-containing DPLA-co-PEG, respectively. Collectively, DPLA-co-PEG-FA represents a promising nanosized drug delivery system to target controllably the delivery of drugs such as chemotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Rostami
- Department
of Chemistry, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran 1591634311, Iran
| | - Mohammad Mahmoudi Gomari
- Department
of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
| | - Majid Abdouss
- Department
of Chemistry, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran 1591634311, Iran
| | - Alaa Moeinzadeh
- Department
of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced
Technologies in Medicine, Iran University
of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
| | - Edris Choupani
- Department
of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
| | - Reza Davarnejad
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Arak University, Arak 3848177584, Iran
| | - Reza Heidari
- Research
Center for Cancer Screening and Epidemiology, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1411718541, Iran
| | - Sidi A. Bencherif
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department
of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Harvard
John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- Sorbonne
University, UTC CNRS UMR 7338, Biomechanics and Bioengineering (BMBI),
University of Technology of Compiègne, Compiègne 60203, France
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5
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Rana D, Colombani T, Saleh B, Mohammed HS, Annabi N, Bencherif SA. Engineering injectable, biocompatible, and highly elastic bioadhesive cryogels. Mater Today Bio 2023; 19:100572. [PMID: 36880083 PMCID: PMC9984686 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM), an integral component of all organs, is inherently tissue adhesive and plays a pivotal role in tissue regeneration and remodeling. However, man-made three-dimensional (3D) biomaterials that are designed to mimic ECMs do not intrinsically adhere to moisture-rich environments and often lack an open macroporous architecture required for facilitating cellularization and integration with the host tissue post-implantation. Furthermore, most of these constructs usually entail invasive surgeries and potentially a risk of infection. To address these challenges, we recently engineered biomimetic and macroporous cryogel scaffolds that are syringe injectable while exhibiting unique physical properties, including strong bioadhesive properties to tissues and organs. These biomimetic catechol-containing cryogels were prepared from naturally-derived polymers such as gelatin and hyaluronic acid and were functionalized with mussel-inspired dopamine (DOPA) to impart bioadhesive properties. We found that using glutathione as an antioxidant and incorporating DOPA into cryogels via a PEG spacer arm led to the highest tissue adhesion and improved physical properties overall, whereas DOPA-free cryogels were weakly tissue adhesive. As shown by qualitative and quantitative adhesion tests, DOPA-containing cryogels were able to adhere strongly to several animal tissues and organs such as the heart, small intestine, lung, kidney, and skin. Furthermore, these unoxidized (i.e., browning-free) and bioadhesive cryogels showed negligible cytotoxicity toward murine fibroblasts and prevented the ex vivo activation of primary bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. Finally, in vivo data suggested good tissue integration and a minimal host inflammatory response when subcutaneously injected in rats. Collectively, these minimally invasive, browning-free, and strongly bioadhesive mussel-inspired cryogels show great promise for various biomedical applications, potentially in wound healing, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devyesh Rana
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Thibault Colombani
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bahram Saleh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Nasim Annabi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Sidi A. Bencherif
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA
- Sorbonne University, UTC CNRS UMR 7338, Biomechanics and Bioengineering (BMBI), University of Technology of Compiègne, Compiègne, France
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6
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Pruksawan S, Chee HL, Wang Z, Luo P, Chong YT, Thitsartarn W, Wang F. Toughened Hydrogels for 3D Printing of Soft Auxetic Structures. Chem Asian J 2022; 17:e202200677. [PMID: 35950549 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202200677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Materials with negative Poisson's ratio have attracted considerable attention and offered high potential applications as biomedical devices due to their ability to expand in every direction when stretched. Although negative Poisson's ratio has been obtained in various base materials such as metals and polymers, there are very limited works on hydrogels due to their intrinsic brittleness. Herein, we report the use of methacrylated cellulose nanocrystals (CNCMAs) as a macro-cross-linking agent in poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA) hydrogels for 3D printing of auxetic structures. Our developed CNCMA-pHEMA hydrogels exhibit significant improvements in mechanical properties, which is attributed to the coexistence of multiple chemical and physical interactions between the pHEMA and CNCMAs. Structures printed by using CNCMA-pHEMA hydrogels show auxetic behavior with greatly enhanced toughness and stretchability compared to the hydrogel with a traditional cross-linking agent. Such strong and tough auxetic hydrogels would contribute toward establishing advanced flexible implantable devices such as biodegradable oesophageal self-expandable stents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heng Li Chee
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, PMC, SINGAPORE
| | - Zizhen Wang
- National University of Singapore - Kent Ridge Campus: National University of Singapore, bioengineering, SINGAPORE
| | - Ping Luo
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, AMC, SINGAPORE
| | - Yi Ting Chong
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, PMC, SINGAPORE
| | | | - FuKe Wang
- Institute of Materiasl Research and Engineering, 3 Research Link, 117602, Singapore, SINGAPORE
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Cuthbert J, Wanasinghe SV, Matyjaszewski K, Konkolewicz D. Are RAFT and ATRP Universally Interchangeable Polymerization Methods in Network Formation? Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Cuthbert
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Ave., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Shiwanka V. Wanasinghe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, 651 E. High St., Oxford, Ohio 45056, United States
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Ave., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Dominik Konkolewicz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, 651 E. High St., Oxford, Ohio 45056, United States
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8
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Liu YZ, Zhang JB, Yuan K. Theoretical Prediction on a Novel Reduction-Responsive Nanoring Having a Disulfide Group for Facile Encapsulation and Release of Fullerenes C 60 and C 70. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:25400-25407. [PMID: 33043220 PMCID: PMC7542849 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c03788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a novel reduction-responsive disulfide bond-containing cycloparaphenylene nanoring molecule (DSCPP) with a pyriform shape has been designed. In addition, the interactions between the designed nanoring (host) and fullerenes C60 and C70 (guests) were investigated theoretically at the M06-2X/6-31G(d,p) and M06-L/MIDI! levels of theory. By analyzing geometric characteristics and host-guest binding energies, it is revealed that the designed DSCPP is an ideal host molecule of guests C60 and C70. DSCPP presents excellent elastic deformation during the encapsulation of C60 and C70. The high binding energies suggest that both DSCPP⊃C60 and DSCPP⊃C70 (∼92 and 118 kJ·mol-1 at the M06-2X/6-31G(d,p) level of theory) are stable host-guest complexes, and the guest C70 is more strongly encapsulated than C60 in the gas phase. The thermodynamic information indicates that the formation of the two host-guest complexes is thermodynamically spontaneous. In addition, the frontier molecular orbital (FMO) features and intermolecular weak interaction region between DSCPP and fullerenes gusts are discussed to further understand the structures and properties of the DSCPP⊃fullerene systems. Finally, the ring-opening mechanism of the DSCPP under reduction conditions is investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Zhi Liu
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianshui Normal University, Tianshui 741001, China
- Key
Laboratory for New Molecule Materials Design and Function of Gansu
Universities, Tianshui Normal University, Tianshui 741001, China
| | - Jian-Bin Zhang
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianshui Normal University, Tianshui 741001, China
| | - Kun Yuan
- School
of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianshui Normal University, Tianshui 741001, China
- Key
Laboratory for New Molecule Materials Design and Function of Gansu
Universities, Tianshui Normal University, Tianshui 741001, China
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9
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Cuthbert J, Balazs AC, Kowalewski T, Matyjaszewski K. STEM Gels by Controlled Radical Polymerization. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2020.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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10
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Cuthbert J, Beziau A, Gottlieb E, Fu L, Yuan R, Balazs AC, Kowalewski T, Matyjaszewski K. Transformable Materials: Structurally Tailored and Engineered Macromolecular (STEM) Gels by Controlled Radical Polymerization. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b00442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Cuthbert
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Antoine Beziau
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Eric Gottlieb
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Liye Fu
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Rui Yuan
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Anna C. Balazs
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, United States
| | - Tomasz Kowalewski
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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11
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Photoactivated Structurally Tailored and Engineered Macromolecular (STEM) gels as precursors for materials with spatially differentiated mechanical properties. POLYMER 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2017.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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12
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Beziau A, De Menezes RNL, Biswas S, Singh A, Cuthbert J, Balazs AC, Kowalewski T, Matyjaszewski K. Combining ATRP and FRP Gels: Soft Gluing of Polymeric Materials for the Fabrication of Stackable Gels. Polymers (Basel) 2017; 9:E186. [PMID: 30970867 PMCID: PMC6432409 DOI: 10.3390/polym9060186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Stackable gels comprised of layers of dissimilar polymers were synthesized by combining conventional free radical polymerization (FRP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using two approaches: (i) polymerization of a pre-gel solution containing a monomer and cross-linker introduced on top of a previously prepared gel, and (ii) simultaneous polymerization of two immiscible pre-gel solutions remaining in contact. All permutations of FRP and ATRP yielded single-piece, connected, amphiphilic gels regardless of the order of polymerization. Furthermore, multi-layer ATRP gels combining different polymers were synthesized with the FRP layer as a gluing agent. A 10-layer amphiphilic stackable gel combining n-butyl methacrylate (BMA) and 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA), and a 10-layer stackable gel combining BMA, DMAEMA and di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (PEO₂MA) were synthesized. This patching method, combining conventional FRP gels with ATRP ones, offers an efficient path to the formation of complex stackable gel architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Beziau
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
| | | | - Santidan Biswas
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Awaneesh Singh
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Julia Cuthbert
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
| | - Anna C Balazs
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Tomasz Kowalewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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13
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Pastorczak M, Okrasa L, Yoon JA, Kowalewski T, Matyjaszewski K. Kinetics of the temperature-induced volume phase transition in poly(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl methacrylate) hydrogels of various topologies. POLYMER 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2016.12.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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14
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He H, Averick S, Mandal P, Ding H, Li S, Gelb J, Kotwal N, Merkle A, Litster S, Matyjaszewski K. Multifunctional Hydrogels with Reversible 3D Ordered Macroporous Structures. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2015; 2:1500069. [PMID: 27980945 PMCID: PMC5115371 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201500069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensionally ordered macroporous (3DOM) hydrogels prepared by colloidal crystals templating display highly reversible shape memory properties, as confirmed by indirect electron microscopy imaging of their inverse replicas and direct nanoscale resolution X-ray microscopy imaging of the hydrated hydrogels. Modifications of functional groups in the 3DOM hydrogels result in various materials with programmed properties for a wide range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongkun He
- Center for Macromolecular Engineering Department of Chemistry Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - Saadyah Averick
- Center for Macromolecular Engineering Department of Chemistry Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - Pratiti Mandal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - Hangjun Ding
- Carl Zeiss X-Ray Microscopy Pleasanton CA 94588 USA
| | - Sipei Li
- Center for Macromolecular Engineering Department of Chemistry Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - Jeff Gelb
- School of Materials Science and Engineering University of Science and Technology Beijing 30 Xueyuan Road Beijing 100083 P. R. China
| | - Naomi Kotwal
- School of Materials Science and Engineering University of Science and Technology Beijing 30 Xueyuan Road Beijing 100083 P. R. China
| | - Arno Merkle
- School of Materials Science and Engineering University of Science and Technology Beijing 30 Xueyuan Road Beijing 100083 P. R. China
| | - Shawn Litster
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Center for Macromolecular Engineering Department of Chemistry Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
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15
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Kozanecki M, Pastorczak M, Okrasa L, Ulanski J, Yoon JA, Kowalewski T, Matyjaszewski K, Koynov K. Evolution of high-temperature molecular relaxations in poly(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl methacrylate) upon network formation. Colloid Polym Sci 2015; 293:1357-1367. [PMID: 26316672 PMCID: PMC4544547 DOI: 10.1007/s00396-015-3517-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Copolymers of 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl methacrylate (poly(MEO2MA)) are regarded as bioinert replacements of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) in some biomedical applications. Networks of poly(MEO2MA) of various architecture form thermo-responsive hydrogels. Here, we present dielectric and mechanical spectroscopy studies on segmental motions and network relaxation processes in linear poly(MEO2MA) and its networks - bare network and the network grafted with short poly(MEO2MA) chains. We show that the α process assigned to the segmental motions of poly(MEO2MA) is independent on the polymer topology and the glass transition temperature, Tg, associated with this process equals 235-236 K for all investigated systems. The α' relaxation observed above Tg by dynamical mechanical analysis is assigned to the sub-Rouse process. It strongly depends on the polymer network architecture and slows down by four orders of magnitude upon network formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Kozanecki
- Department of Molecular Physics, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
| | - Marcin Pastorczak
- Department of Molecular Physics, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
| | - Lidia Okrasa
- Department of Molecular Physics, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
| | - Jacek Ulanski
- Department of Molecular Physics, Lodz University of Technology, Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
| | - Jeong Ae Yoon
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Tomasz Kowalewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Kaloian Koynov
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55021 Mainz, Germany
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16
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Gharib DH, Amemori S, Naya M, Kokado K, Sada K. Gel thermoresponsiveness driven by switching of the charge-transfer interaction. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra18388j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel gel LCST system was constructed by utilizing the CT interaction between the gel and external effector, thus shrinking upon heating with hypochromic colour change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desi H. Gharib
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 060-8628
- Japan
| | - Shogo Amemori
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 060-8628
- Japan
| | - Masami Naya
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 060-8628
- Japan
| | - Kenta Kokado
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 060-8628
- Japan
| | - Kazuki Sada
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Graduate School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering
- Hokkaido University
- Sapporo 060-8628
- Japan
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17
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18
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Radiation-induced synthesis of thermo-sensitive, gradient hydrogels based on 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl methacrylate. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2014.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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19
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Patenaude M, Smeets NMB, Hoare T. Designing Injectable, Covalently Cross-Linked Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 2014; 35:598-617. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201300818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Revised: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mathew Patenaude
- Department of Chemical Engineering; McMaster University; 1280 Main St. W. Hamilton Ontario Canada L8S 4L7
| | - Niels M. B. Smeets
- Department of Chemical Engineering; McMaster University; 1280 Main St. W. Hamilton Ontario Canada L8S 4L7
| | - Todd Hoare
- Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering; McMaster University; 1280 Main St. W. Hamilton Ontario Canada L8S 4L7
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20
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Aleksanian S, Wen Y, Chan N, Oh JK. Thiol-responsive hydrogel scaffolds for rapid change in thermoresponsiveness. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra43841d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
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21
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Bencherif SA, Braschler TM, Renaud P. Advances in the design of macroporous polymer scaffolds for potential applications in dentistry. J Periodontal Implant Sci 2013; 43:251-61. [PMID: 24455437 PMCID: PMC3891856 DOI: 10.5051/jpis.2013.43.6.251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A paradigm shift is taking place in medicine and dentistry from using synthetic implants and tissue grafts to a tissue engineering approach that uses degradable porous three-dimensional (3D) material hydrogels integrated with cells and bioactive factors to regenerate tissues such as dental bone and other oral tissues. Hydrogels have been established as a biomaterial of choice for many years, as they offer diverse properties that make them ideal in regenerative medicine, including dental applications. Being highly biocompatible and similar to native extracellular matrix, hydrogels have emerged as ideal candidates in the design of 3D scaffolds for tissue regeneration and drug delivery applications. However, precise control over hydrogel properties, such as porosity, pore size, and pore interconnectivity, remains a challenge. Traditional techniques for creating conventional crosslinked polymers have demonstrated limited success in the formation of hydrogels with large pore size, thus limiting cellular infiltration, tissue ingrowth, vascularization, and matrix mineralization (in the case of bone) of tissue-engineered constructs. Emerging technologies have demonstrated the ability to control microarchitectural features in hydrogels such as the creation of large pore size, porosity, and pore interconnectivity, thus allowing the creation of engineered hydrogel scaffolds with a structure and function closely mimicking native tissues. In this review, we explore the various technologies available for the preparation of macroporous scaffolds and their potential applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidi A. Bencherif
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Thomas M. Braschler
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Laboratory of Microsystems, STI-LMIS4, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Renaud
- Laboratory of Microsystems, STI-LMIS4, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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22
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Air-Spun PLA Nanofibers Modified with Reductively Sheddable Hydrophilic Surfaces for Vascular Tissue Engineering: Synthesis and Surface Modification. Macromol Rapid Commun 2013; 35:447-53. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201300609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2013] [Revised: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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23
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Kharkar PM, Kiick KL, Kloxin AM. Designing degradable hydrogels for orthogonal control of cell microenvironments. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:7335-72. [PMID: 23609001 PMCID: PMC3762890 DOI: 10.1039/c3cs60040h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 470] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Degradable and cell-compatible hydrogels can be designed to mimic the physical and biochemical characteristics of native extracellular matrices and provide tunability of degradation rates and related properties under physiological conditions. Hence, such hydrogels are finding widespread application in many bioengineering fields, including controlled bioactive molecule delivery, cell encapsulation for controlled three-dimensional culture, and tissue engineering. Cellular processes, such as adhesion, proliferation, spreading, migration, and differentiation, can be controlled within degradable, cell-compatible hydrogels with temporal tuning of biochemical or biophysical cues, such as growth factor presentation or hydrogel stiffness. However, thoughtful selection of hydrogel base materials, formation chemistries, and degradable moieties is necessary to achieve the appropriate level of property control and desired cellular response. In this review, hydrogel design considerations and materials for hydrogel preparation, ranging from natural polymers to synthetic polymers, are overviewed. Recent advances in chemical and physical methods to crosslink hydrogels are highlighted, as well as recent developments in controlling hydrogel degradation rates and modes of degradation. Special attention is given to spatial or temporal presentation of various biochemical and biophysical cues to modulate cell response in static (i.e., non-degradable) or dynamic (i.e., degradable) microenvironments. This review provides insight into the design of new cell-compatible, degradable hydrogels to understand and modulate cellular processes for various biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prathamesh M. Kharkar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA . ;
| | - Kristi L. Kiick
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA . ;
- Biomedical Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA
- Delaware Biotechnology Institute , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA
| | - April M. Kloxin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA . ;
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , University of Delaware , Newark , DE 19716 , USA
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24
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Hayashida O, Ichimura K, Sato D, Yasunaga T. Synthesis, guest-binding, and reduction-responsive degradation properties of water-soluble cyclophanes having disulfide moieties. J Org Chem 2013; 78:5463-9. [PMID: 23679225 DOI: 10.1021/jo400591w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Water-soluble cationic cyclophane having diphenyl disulfide moieties (1a) was synthesized as a reduction-responsive degradable host. The stoichiometry for the complex of 1a with anionic fluorescence guests, such as 4,4'-bis(1-anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonate) (Bis-ANS) and 4-(1-pyrene)-butanoic acid (PBA), was confirmed to be 1:1 host:guest by a Job plot. The binding constants (K) of 1a toward Bis-ANS and PBA were evaluated to be 6.7 × 10(3) and 4.5 × 10(4) M(-1), respectively, as confirmed by fluorescence spectroscopy. Reduction of disulfide bonds of 1a by dithiothreitol gave its reduced form having poor guest-binding affinity that led to release of the entrapped guest molecules to the bulk aqueous phase. Meanwhile, anionic cyclophane 1b, which was derived from 1a by a reaction with succinic anhydride, binds cationic anticancer drugs, such as daunorubicin hydrochloride (DNR) and doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX), with a K of 2.1 × 10(3) and 7.5 × 10(2) M(-1), respectively. A similar reduction-responsive guest release feature was observed when DNR and DOX were employed as a guest for complexation with 1b.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Hayashida
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Fukuoka University , 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan.
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25
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Rahimian-Bajgiran K, Chan N, Zhang Q, Noh SM, Lee HI, Oh JK. Tuning LCST with thiol-responsiveness of thermoresponsive copolymers containing pendant disulfides. Chem Commun (Camb) 2013; 49:807-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cc37804c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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26
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27
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Matyjaszewski K. Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (ATRP): Current Status and Future Perspectives. Macromolecules 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ma3001719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2011] [Impact Index Per Article: 167.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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28
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Pinnel P, Mendez-Nelson A, Noh SM, Nam JH, Oh JK. Rapid and Tunable Reductive Degradation of Disulfide-Labeled Polyesters. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201100662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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29
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Khorsand Sourkohi B, Cunningham A, Zhang Q, Oh JK. Biodegradable Block Copolymer Micelles with Thiol-Responsive Sheddable Coronas. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:3819-25. [DOI: 10.1021/bm2011032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Behnoush Khorsand Sourkohi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Quebec,
Canada H4B 1R6
| | - Alexander Cunningham
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Quebec,
Canada H4B 1R6
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Quebec,
Canada H4B 1R6
| | - Jung Kwon Oh
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Quebec,
Canada H4B 1R6
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30
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Nese A, Lebedeva NV, Sherwood G, Averick S, Li Y, Gao H, Peteanu L, Sheiko SS, Matyjaszewski K. pH-Responsive Fluorescent Molecular Bottlebrushes Prepared by Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization. Macromolecules 2011. [DOI: 10.1021/ma201045c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alper Nese
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Natalia V. Lebedeva
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Gizelle Sherwood
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Saadyah Averick
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Yuanchao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Haifeng Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Linda Peteanu
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Sergei S. Sheiko
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Macromolecular Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
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