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Yamazaki H, Shimizu M. Species Specificity and Selection of Models for Drug Oxidations Mediated by Polymorphic Human Enzymes. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:123-129. [PMID: 35772770 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Many drug oxygenations are mainly mediated by polymorphic cytochromes P450 (P450s) and also by flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs). More than 50 years of research on P450/FMO-mediated drug oxygenations have clarified their catalytic roles. The natural product coumarin causes hepatotoxicity in rats via the reactive coumarin 3,4-epoxide, a reaction catalyzed by P450 1A2; however, coumarin undergoes rapid 7-hydroxylation by polymorphic P450 2A6 in humans. The primary oxidation product of the teratogen thalidomide in rats is deactivated 5'-hydroxythalidomide plus sulfate and glucuronide conjugates; however, similar 5'-hydroxythalidomide and 5-hydroxythalidomide are formed in rabbits in vivo. Thalidomide causes human P450 3A enzyme induction in liver (and placenta) and is also activated in vitro and in vivo by P450 3A through the primary human metabolite 5-hydroxythalidomide (leading to conjugation with glutathione/nonspecific proteins). Species differences exist in terms of drug metabolism in rodents and humans, and such differences can be very important when determining the contributions of individual enzymes. The approaches used for investigating the roles of human P450 and FMO enzymes in understanding drug oxidations and clinical therapy have not yet reached maturity and still require further development. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Drug oxidations in animals and humans mediated by P450s and FMOs are important for understanding the pharmacological properties of drugs, such as the species-dependent teratogenicity of the reactive metabolites of thalidomide and the metabolism of food-derived odorous trimethylamine to non-odorous (but proatherogenic) trimethylamine N-oxide. Recognized differences exist in terms of drug metabolism between rodents, non-human primates, and humans, and such differences are important when determining individual liver enzyme contributions with substrates in in vitro and in vivo systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, Japan
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2
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Andrews PL, Williams RS, Sanger GJ. Anti-emetic effects of thalidomide: Evidence, mechanism of action, and future directions. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PHARMACOLOGY AND DRUG DISCOVERY 2022; 3:100138. [PMID: 36568268 PMCID: PMC9780081 DOI: 10.1016/j.crphar.2022.100138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The rationale for using thalidomide (THD) as a treatment for nausea and vomiting during pregnancy in the late 1950s appears to have been based on its sedative or hypnotic properties. In contrast to contemporaneous studies on the anti-emetic activity of phenothiazines, we were unable to identify publications reporting preclinical or clinical evaluation of THD as an anti-emetic. Our survey of the literature revealed a clinical study in 1965 showing THD reduced vomiting in cancer chemotherapy which was substantiated by similar studies from 2000, particularly showing efficacy in the delayed phase of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. To identify the mechanism(s) potentially involved in thalidomide's anti-emetic activity we reviewed its pharmacology in the light of nausea and vomiting mechanisms and their pharmacology with a particular emphasis on chemotherapy and pregnancy. The process identified the following potential mechanisms: reduced secretion of Growth Differentiation Factor 15, suppression of inflammation/prostaglandin production, downregulation of cytotoxic drug induced upregulation of iNOS, and modulation of BK (KCa1.1) channels and GABAA/glutamate transmission at critical points in the emetic pathways (nucleus tractus solitarius, area postrema). We propose ways to investigate these hypothesized mechanisms and discuss the associated challenges (e.g., objective quantification of nausea) in addition to some of the more general aspects of developing novel drugs to treat nausea and vomiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul L.R. Andrews
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robin S.B. Williams
- Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth J. Sanger
- Blizard Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, United Kingdom
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3
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Ogiya D, Murayama N, Kamiya Y, Saito R, Shiraiwa S, Suzuki R, Machida S, Tazume K, Ando K, Yamazaki H. Low cerebrospinal fluid-to-plasma ratios of orally administered lenalidomide mediated by its low cell membrane permeability in patients with hematologic malignancies. Ann Hematol 2022; 101:2013-2019. [PMID: 35732975 DOI: 10.1007/s00277-022-04893-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Lenalidomide is a synthetic analog of thalidomide formed by the removal of one keto group (plus the addition of an amino group); it has anti-tumor activities beneficial for the treatment of hematologic malignancies. However, lenalidomide distribution to brain in animal models is reportedly low compared with that of thalidomide. The aim of this study was to evaluate plasma and cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of lenalidomide in three patients with malignant hematologic malignancies. Lenalidomide was detected in plasma from the three Japanese patients 1.5 h following oral administration of 20 mg lenalidomide using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry, despite the in vitro gastrointestinal permeability of lenalidomide being low. Clinically observed cerebrospinal fluid-to-plasma ratios of lenalidomide were low (1.3-2.4%). Observed influx permeability values for lenalidomide in monkey blood-brain barrier model and human placental cell systems were one order of magnitude lower than those of thalidomide and another second-generation drug, pomalidomide along with a positive permeability control, caffeine. Because of the low cell-barrier permeability of lenalidomide demonstrated in in vitro assays, clinically relevant pharmacokinetic profiles of lenalidomide resulted in low penetrability from plasma into cerebrospinal fluid in patients with hematologic malignancies. Lenalidomide is conclusively suggested to expert its favorable immunomodulatory effects via systemic exposures in the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Ogiya
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan.,Department of Hematology, Isehara Kyodo Hospital, 345 Tanaka, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1187, Japan
| | - Norie Murayama
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8543, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kamiya
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8543, Japan
| | - Rie Saito
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8543, Japan
| | - Sawako Shiraiwa
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan
| | - Rikio Suzuki
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan
| | - Shinichiro Machida
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan
| | - Kei Tazume
- Department of Hematology, Isehara Kyodo Hospital, 345 Tanaka, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1187, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Ando
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, 143 Shimokasuya, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8543, Japan.
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4
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Palmer A, Stezoski J, Janesko‑feldman K, Kochanek P, Drabek T. Targeting TNFα‑mediated cytotoxicity using thalidomide after experimental cardiac arrest in rats: An exploratory study. Exp Ther Med 2022; 23:380. [DOI: 10.3892/etm.2022.11307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Palmer
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Jason Stezoski
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Keri Janesko‑feldman
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Patrick Kochanek
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
| | - Tomas Drabek
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
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Dib P, Zhang Y, Ihnat MA, Gallucci RM, Standifer KM. TNF-Alpha as an Initiator of Allodynia and Anxiety-Like Behaviors in a Preclinical Model of PTSD and Comorbid Pain. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:721999. [PMID: 34512420 PMCID: PMC8424009 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.721999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental health disorder that occurs after exposure to a traumatic event. Patients with comorbid chronic pain experience affective distress, worse quality of life, and poorer responses to treatments for pain or PTSD than those with either condition alone. FDA-approved PTSD treatments are often ineffective analgesics, requiring additional drugs to treat co-morbid symptoms. Therefore, development of new treatment strategies necessitate a better understanding of the pathophysiology of PTSD and comorbid pain. The single prolonged stress (SPS) model of PTSD induces the development of persistent mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Increased Nociceptin/Orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) levels in serum and CSF accompany these exaggerated nociceptive responses, as well as increased serum levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α). Therefore, the primary goal was to determine the role of TNF-α in the development of SPS-induced allodynia/hyperalgesia and elevated serum and CNS N/OFQ using two approaches: TNF-α synthesis inhibition, and blockade with anti-TNF-α antibody that acts primarily in the periphery. Administration of TNF-α synthesis blocker, thalidomide (THL), immediately after SPS prevented increased TNF-α and development of allodynia and hyperalgesia. The THL effect lasted at least 21 days, well after thalidomide treatment ended (day 5). THL also prevented SPS-induced increases in serum N/OFQ and reversed regional N/OFQ mRNA expression changes in the CNS. Serum TNF-α increases detected at 4 and 24 h post SPS were not accompanied by blood brain barrier disruption. A single injection of anti-TNF-α antibody to male and female rats during the SPS procedure prevented the development of allodynia, hyperalgesia, and elevated serum N/OFQ, and reduced SPS-induced anxiety-like behaviors in males. Anti-TNFα treatment also blocked development of SPS-induced allodynia in females, and blocked increased hypothalamic N/OFQ in males and females. This suggests that a peripheral TNF-α surge is necessary for the initiation of allodynia associated with SPS, as well as the altered central and peripheral N/OFQ that maintains nociceptive sensitivity. Therefore, early alleviation of TNF-α provides new therapeutic options for investigation as future PTSD and co-morbid pain treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Dib
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Michael A Ihnat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States.,Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States.,Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Randle M Gallucci
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States.,Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States.,Department of Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Kelly M Standifer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States.,Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
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6
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Jung YJ, Tweedie D, Scerba MT, Greig NH. Neuroinflammation as a Factor of Neurodegenerative Disease: Thalidomide Analogs as Treatments. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:313. [PMID: 31867326 PMCID: PMC6904283 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is initiated when glial cells, mainly microglia, are activated by threats to the neural environment, such as pathogen infiltration or neuronal injury. Although neuroinflammation serves to combat these threats and reinstate brain homeostasis, chronic inflammation can result in excessive cytokine production and cell death if the cause of inflammation remains. Overexpression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a proinflammatory cytokine with a central role in microglial activation, has been associated with neuronal excitotoxicity, synapse loss, and propagation of the inflammatory state. Thalidomide and its derivatives, termed immunomodulatory imide drugs (IMiDs), are a class of drugs that target the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of TNF-α mRNA, inhibiting TNF-α production. Due to their multi-potent effects, several IMiDs, including thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide, have been repurposed as drug treatments for diseases such as multiple myeloma and psoriatic arthritis. Preclinical studies of currently marketed IMiDs, as well as novel IMiDs such as 3,6'-dithiothalidomide and adamantyl thalidomide derivatives, support the development of IMiDs as therapeutics for neurological disease. IMiDs have a competitive edge compared to similar anti-inflammatory drugs due to their blood-brain barrier permeability and high bioavailability, with the potential to alleviate symptoms of neurodegenerative disease and slow disease progression. In this review, we evaluate the role of neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, focusing specifically on the role of TNF-α in neuroinflammation, as well as appraise current research on the potential of IMiDs as treatments for neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoo Jin Jung
- Drug Design & Development Section, Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | | | | | - Nigel H. Greig
- Drug Design & Development Section, Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
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7
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de Oliveira GHO, do Nascimento SB, de Oliveira FM, Belo VS, de Alencar Danda LJ, Soares-Sobrinho JL, Fialho SL, Bedor DCG, de Castro WV. Systematic evaluation of the impact of solid-state polymorphism on the bioavailability of thalidomide. Eur J Pharm Sci 2019; 136:104937. [PMID: 31128208 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2019.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Thalidomide (TLD) is used to treat erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL), multiple myeloma, aphthous ulceration and wasting syndrome in HIV patients. The API can be found in two crystalline habits known as α-TLD and β-TLD. The saturation solubility (Cs) and the dissolution profiles under non-sink and sink conditions of both polymorphs were assessed. In addition, mini-capsules containing α-TLD or β-TLD without excipients were orally given (10 mg/kg) to Wistar rats. An intravenous (i.v.) dose was also administrated (5 mg/kg). The Cs values for α-TLD and β-TLD were not significantly different (α = 56.2 ± 0.5 μg·mL-1; β = 55.2 ± 0.2 μg·mL-1). However, the dissolution profile of α-TLD presented the fastest rate and the largest extension of drug dissolution than that from β-TLD (80% in 4 h versus 55% in 4 h). The α-TLD provided a more favorable pharmacokinetic than the β-TLD (maximum plasma concentration - Cmax: 5.4 ± 0.90 μg·mL-1versus 2.6 ± 0.2 μg·mL-1; area under the curve of the concentration-time profile from time zero to infinity - AUC0-∞: 44.3 ± 8.8 μg·h·mL-1versus 33.9 ± 4.7 μg·h·mL-1; absolute bioavailability - F: 92.2 ± 18.5% versus 70.5 ± 9.9%, respectively). Drug suppliers and pharmaceutical companies should strictly control the technological processes involved in the TLD API synthesis as well as in the production of the pharmaceutical dosage form in order to guarantee the inter-batch homogeneity and therefore, product compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Henrique Onório de Oliveira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei - UFJS, Av. Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho 400, Chanadour, Divinópolis, MG CEP: 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Sara Batista do Nascimento
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei - UFJS, Av. Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho 400, Chanadour, Divinópolis, MG CEP: 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Flávio Martins de Oliveira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei - UFJS, Av. Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho 400, Chanadour, Divinópolis, MG CEP: 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Silva Belo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei - UFJS, Av. Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho 400, Chanadour, Divinópolis, MG CEP: 35501-296, Brazil
| | - Lucas José de Alencar Danda
- Núcleo Controle de Qualidade de Medicamentos e Correlatos - NCQMC, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - UFPE, Av. Artur de Sá, S/N. Cidade Universitária, Recife, PE CEP: 50740-520, Brazil
| | - José Lamartine Soares-Sobrinho
- Núcleo Controle de Qualidade de Medicamentos e Correlatos - NCQMC, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - UFPE, Av. Artur de Sá, S/N. Cidade Universitária, Recife, PE CEP: 50740-520, Brazil
| | - Silvia Ligório Fialho
- Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, Rua Conde Pereira Carneiro, 80, Gameleira, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP: 30510-010, Brazil
| | - Danilo César Galindo Bedor
- Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Farmacêutico e Cosmético - NUDFAC, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. Artur de Sá, S/N. Cidade Universitária, Recife, PE CEP: 50740-520, Brazil
| | - Whocely Victor de Castro
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei - UFJS, Av. Sebastião Gonçalves Coelho 400, Chanadour, Divinópolis, MG CEP: 35501-296, Brazil.
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8
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Abdelwahab NS, Ali NW, Zaki MM, Sharkawi SMZ, Abdelkawy MM. Simultaneous Determination of Thalidomide and Dexamethasone in Rat Plasma by Validated HPLC and HPTLC With Pharmacokinetic Study. J Chromatogr Sci 2019; 57:130-138. [PMID: 30272138 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmy094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Two validated chromatographic methods have been developed for the simultaneous determination of thalidomide (THD) and dexamethasone (DEX) in rat plasma using paracetamol (PAR) as an internal standard (IS). Chromatographic analysis was achieved firstly by HPLC method on C18 column (150 × 4.6 mm2 i.d., 5 μm) and a mobile phase composed of ethanol:water (containing 0.1% acetic acid) (70:30, v/v) at the flow rate of 0.6 mL min-1. The second method was HPTLC method which depended on using a developing system of methylene chloride:acetone:ethyl acetate (7:4:1, by volume). In both methods, PAR was used as an IS. The developed methods have been validated as per FDA guidelines. All parameters were tested using quality control samples (LQC, MQC and HQC). All the obtained parameters were within the acceptance criteria. In the same way, the two methods were successfully used to study the pharmacokinetic parameters of both THD and DEX after their intra-peritoneal administration. Moreover, results obtained after administration of each drug alone were compared to those obtained after their administration together. The drugs showed drug-drug interactions when administered in combination, meaning that monitoring of such combination is very important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada S Abdelwahab
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Alshaheed Shehata Ahmed Hegazy St., Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Nouruddin W Ali
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Alshaheed Shehata Ahmed Hegazy St., Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Marco M Zaki
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Alshaheed Shehata Ahmed Hegazy St., Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Souty M Z Sharkawi
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Alshaheed Shehata Ahmed Hegazy St., Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Mohamed M Abdelkawy
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini St, Cairo, Egypt.,Faculty of Pharmaceutical science and Pharmaceutical industries, Future University, Cairo, Egypt
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9
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Microdialysis Study of Aztreonam-Avibactam Distribution in Peritoneal Fluid and Muscle of Rats with or without Experimental Peritonitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2018; 62:AAC.01228-18. [PMID: 30012776 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01228-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate aztreonam (ATM) and avibactam (AVI) distribution in intraperitoneal fluid and muscle interstitial fluid by microdialysis in rats, with or without peritonitis, and to compare the unbound concentrations in tissue with the unbound concentrations in blood. Microdialysis probes were inserted into the jugular veins, hind leg muscles, and peritoneal cavities of control rats (n = 5) and rats with intra-abdominal sepsis (n = 9) induced by cecal ligation and punctures. ATM and AVI probe recoveries in each medium were determined for both molecules in each rat by retrodialysis by drug. ATM-AVI combination was administered as an intravenous bolus at a dose of 100-25 mg · kg-1 Microdialysis samples were collected over 120 min, and ATM-AVI concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was conducted and nonparametric tests were used for statistical comparisons between groups (infected versus control) and medium. ATM and AVI distribution in intraperitoneal fluid and muscle was rapid and complete both in control rats and in rats with peritonitis, and the concentration profiles in blood, intraperitoneal fluid, and muscle were virtually superimposed, in control and infected animals, both for ATM and AVI. No statistically significant difference was observed between unbound tissue extracellular fluid and systemic areas under the curve for both molecules in control and infected animals. In the present study, intraperitoneal infection induced by cecal ligation and puncture had no apparent effect on ATM and AVI pharmacokinetics in rats.
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10
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Qi Y, Klyubin I, Cuello AC, Rowan MJ. NLRP3-dependent synaptic plasticity deficit in an Alzheimer's disease amyloidosis model in vivo. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 114:24-30. [PMID: 29477641 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory mechanisms have recently emerged as an important component of early Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. A particularly attractive therapeutic strategy is to selectively prevent the disruptive effects of activation of the innate immune system in the brain at an early transitional stage by reducing the production or directly neutralizing pro-inflammatory cytokines, in particular IL-1β and TNF-α. Here we tested their in vivo effects on synaptic plasticity deficits, which provide sensitive and robust measures of synaptic failure, in a rat model of AD amyloidosis. Using electrophysiological techniques we longitudinally studied the effects of the NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor Mcc950, the IL-1 receptor antagonist (anakinra) and an anti-TNF-α agent (etanercept) in awake freely moving transgenic rats overexpressing AD associated β-amyloid precursor protein at a pre-plaque stage of amyloidosis. Repeated treatment with Mcc950 reversibly abrogated the inhibition of long-term potentiation. The IL-1 receptor antagonist and etanercept also had a similar beneficial effect on the deficit in synaptic plasticity. Our findings support the clinical development of Mcc950 and clinically available IL-1- and TNF-α-neutralizing agents in early AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjie Qi
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Watts Building, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Igor Klyubin
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Watts Building, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | - A Claudio Cuello
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Sir-William-Osler Promenade, Room 1210, Montreal, QC H3G1Y6, Canada; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal H3G1Y6, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal H3G1Y6, Canada
| | - Michael J Rowan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Watts Building, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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Malik MY, Jaiswal S, Sharma A, Shukla M, Lal J. Role of enterohepatic recirculation in drug disposition: cooperation and complications. Drug Metab Rev 2016; 48:281-327. [PMID: 26987379 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2016.1157600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Enterohepatic recirculation (EHC) concerns many physiological processes and notably affects pharmacokinetic parameters such as plasma half-life and AUC as well as estimates of bioavailability of drugs. Also, EHC plays a detrimental role as the compounds/drugs are allowed to recycle. An in-depth comprehension of this phenomenon and its consequences on the pharmacological effects of affected drugs is important and decisive in the design and development of new candidate drugs. EHC of a compound/drug occurs by biliary excretion and intestinal reabsorption, sometimes with hepatic conjugation and intestinal deconjugation. EHC leads to prolonged elimination half-life of the drugs, altered pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Study of the EHC of any drug is complicated due to unavailability of the apposite model, sophisticated procedures and ethical concerns. Different in vitro and in vivo methods for studies in experimental animals and humans have been devised, each having its own merits and demerits. Involvement of the different transporters in biliary excretion, intra- and inter-species, pathological and biochemical variabilities obscure the study of the phenomenon. Modeling of drugs undergoing EHC has always been intricate and exigent models have been exploited to interpret the pharmacokinetic profiles of drugs witnessing multiple peaks due to EHC. Here, we critically appraise the mechanisms of bile formation, factors affecting biliary drug elimination, methods to estimate biliary excretion of drugs, EHC, multiple peak phenomenon and its modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Yaseen Malik
- a Department of Pharmaceutics , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) , Raebareli , India ;,b Pharmacokinetics & Metabolism Division , CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow , India
| | - Swati Jaiswal
- b Pharmacokinetics & Metabolism Division , CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow , India ;,c Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research , New Delhi , India
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- b Pharmacokinetics & Metabolism Division , CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow , India ;,c Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research , New Delhi , India ;,d Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy , The University of Mississippi , Oxford , USA
| | - Mahendra Shukla
- b Pharmacokinetics & Metabolism Division , CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow , India ;,c Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research , New Delhi , India
| | - Jawahar Lal
- b Pharmacokinetics & Metabolism Division , CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow , India ;,c Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research , New Delhi , India
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Model of complex chiral drug metabolic systems and numerical simulation of the remaining chirality toward analysis of dynamical pharmacological activity. J Theor Biol 2015; 373:117-31. [PMID: 25791284 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, systems of complicated pathways involved in chiral drug metabolism were investigated. The development of chiral drugs resulted in significant improvement in the remedies available for the treatment of various severe sicknesses. Enantiopure drugs undergo various biological transformations that involve chiral inversion and thus result in the generation of multiple enantiomeric metabolites. Identification of the specific active substances determining a given drug׳s efficacy among such a mixture of different metabolites remains a challenge. To comprehend this complexity, we constructed a mathematical model representing the complicated metabolic pathways simultaneously involving chiral inversion. Moreover, this model is applied to the metabolism of thalidomide, which has recently been revived as a potentially effective prescription drug for a number of intractable diseases. The numerical simulation results indicate that retained chirality in the metabolites reflects the original chirality of the unmetabolized drug, and a higher level of enantiomeric purity is preserved during spontaneous degradation. In addition, chirality remaining after equilibration is directly related to the rate constant not only for chiral inversion but also for generation and degradation. Furthermore, the retention of chirality is quantitatively predictable using this combination of kinetic parameters. Our simulation results well explain the behavior of thalidomide in the practical biological experimental data. Therefore, this model promises a comprehensive understanding of dynamic metabolic systems involving chiral drugs that express multiple enantiospecific drug efficacies.
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Elçioğlu HK, Kabasakal L, Alan S, Şalva E, Tufan F, Karan MA. Thalidomide attenuates learning and memory deficits induced by intracerebroventricular administration of streptozotocin in rats. Biotech Histochem 2012; 88:145-52. [DOI: 10.3109/10520295.2012.744471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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Bai N, Cui XY, Wang J, Sun CG, Mei HK, Liang BB, Cai Y, Song XJ, Gu JK, Wang R. Determination of thalidomide concentration in human plasma by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Exp Ther Med 2012; 5:626-630. [PMID: 23404219 PMCID: PMC3570145 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2012.847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
A rapid, sensitive and specific analytical method based on high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has been developed for the determination of thalidomide concentration in human plasma. The analyte and internal standard were extracted by liquid-liquid extraction with ether-dichloromethane (3:2, v/v) and separated on a TC-C18 column using methanol-10 mM ammonium acetate-formic acid (60:40:0.04, v/v/v) as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.9 ml/min. The detection was performed using an API 4000 triple quadrupole mass spectrometer in the positive electrospray ionization (ESI) mode and completed within 3.0 min. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) transitions were m/z 259.1→84.0 for the analyte and m/z 195.9→138.9 for temozolomide. The calibration curve exhibited a linear dynamic range of 2–1500 ng/ml (r>0.9991). The intra-and inter-day precisions (as relative standard deviation; RSD) were 6.8–13.5% and 4.3–5.0% respectively and the accuracy (as relative error; RE) was 2.0–3.5%. The recoveries and matrix effects were satisfactory in all the biological matrices examined. This method was successfully used in a pharmacokinetic study of thalidomide in healthy male volunteers receiving an oral administration of a 200-mg dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Bai
- The Center of Medicine Clinical Research, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853
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Kuhnline Sloan CD, Nandi P, Linz TH, Aldrich JV, Audus KL, Lunte SM. Analytical and biological methods for probing the blood-brain barrier. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2012; 5:505-31. [PMID: 22708905 PMCID: PMC3744104 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-062011-143002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an important interface between the peripheral and central nervous systems. It protects the brain against the infiltration of harmful substances and regulates the permeation of beneficial endogenous substances from the blood into the extracellular fluid of the brain. It can also present a major obstacle in the development of drugs that are targeted for the central nervous system. Several methods have been developed to investigate the transport and metabolism of drugs, peptides, and endogenous compounds at the BBB. In vivo methods include intravenous injection, brain perfusion, positron emission tomography, and microdialysis sampling. Researchers have also developed in vitro cell-culture models that can be employed to investigate transport and metabolism at the BBB without the complication of systemic involvement. All these methods require sensitive and selective analytical methods to monitor the transport and metabolism of the compounds of interest at the BBB.
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Murphy S, Boyle FM, Davey RA, Gu XQ, Mather LE. Enantioselectivity of thalidomide serum and tissue concentrations in a rat glioma model and effects of combination treatment with cisplatin and BCNU. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 59:105-14. [PMID: 17227627 DOI: 10.1211/jpp.59.1.0014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Thalidomide is currently under evaluation as an anti-angiogenic agent in cancer treatment, alone and in combination with cytotoxic agents. Thalidomide is a racemate with known pharmacologic and pharmacokinetic enantioselectivity. In a previous study with thalidomide combination chemotherapy, we found evidence of anti-tumour synergy. In this study, we examined whether the synergy involved altered pharmacokinetics of thalidomide enantiomers. Adult female F344 rats were implanted with 9L gliosarcoma tumours intracranially, subcutaneously (flank), or both. Effectiveness of oral thalidomide alone, and with intraperitoneal BCNU or cisplatin combination chemotherapy, was assessed after several weeks treatment. Presumed pseudo steady-state serum, tumour and other tissues, collected after treatment, were assayed for R- and S-thalidomide by chiral HPLC. Both serum and tissue concentrations of R-thalidomide were 40–50% greater than those of S-thalidomide. Co-administration of BCNU or cisplatin with thalidomide did not alter the concentration enantioselectivity. Poor correlation of concentration with subcutaneous anti-tumour effect was found for individual treatments, and with all treatments for intracranial tumours. The consistency of the enantiomer concentration ratios across treatments strongly suggests that the favourable anti-tumour outcomes from interactions between thalidomide and the cytotoxic agents BCNU and cisplatin did not have altered enantioselectivity of thalidomide pharmacokinetics as their basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Murphy
- Bill Walsh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Medical Oncology, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, Sydney, NSW 2065, Australia
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Holovics HJ, Anderson CR, Levine BS, Hui HW, Lunte CE. Investigation of drug delivery by iontophoresis in a surgical wound utilizing microdialysis. Pharm Res 2008; 25:1762-70. [PMID: 18080730 PMCID: PMC2575049 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-007-9490-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2007] [Accepted: 10/23/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated the penetration of lidocaine around and through a sutured incision following the application of iontophoretic and passive patches in the CD Hairless rat. MATERIALS AND METHODS Concentrations in localized areas (suture, dermis, subcutaneous, and vascular) were determined using microdialysis sampling followed by analysis using liquid chromatography with UV detection. RESULTS Iontophoresis significantly enhanced the dermal penetration of lidocaine. In an intact skin model, dermal concentrations were 40 times greater following iontophoretic delivery compared to passive delivery. In a sutured incision model, iontophoresis enhanced localized concentrations in the dermis, suture, and subcutaneous regions by 6-, 15-, and 20-fold, respectively. Iontophoretic delivery to a region containing a sutured incision was focused to the incision resulting in a greater increase in the suture concentration and in the subcutaneous region directly below the incision. CONCLUSIONS The four microdialysis probe design was successful in the determination of localized drug penetration in a sutured incision model. Iontophoresis enhanced skin penetration and allowed for site specific delivery when applied to a sutured incision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi J Holovics
- R. N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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Schultz KN, Kennedy RT. Time-resolved microdialysis for in vivo neurochemical measurements and other applications. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2008; 1:627-661. [PMID: 20636092 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.anchem.1.031207.113047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring changes in chemical concentrations over time in complex environments is typically performed using sensors and spectroscopic techniques. Another approach is to couple sampling methods, such as microdialysis, with chromatographic, electrophoretic, or enzymatic assays. Recent advances of such coupling have enabled improvements in temporal resolution, multianalyte capability, and automation. In a sampling and analysis method, the temporal resolution is set by the mass sensitivity of the analytical method, analysis time, and zone dispersion during sampling. Coupling methods with high speed and mass sensitivity to microdialysis sampling help to reduce some of these contributions to yield methods with temporal resolution of seconds. These advances have been primarily used in monitoring neurotransmitters in vivo. This review covers the problems associated with chemical monitoring in the brain, recent advances in using microdialysis for time-resolved in vivo measurements, sample applications, and other potential applications of the technology such as determining reaction kinetics and process monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin N Schultz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, USA
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Alkam T, Nitta A, Mizoguchi H, Saito K, Seshima M, Itoh A, Yamada K, Nabeshima T. Restraining tumor necrosis factor-alpha by thalidomide prevents the amyloid beta-induced impairment of recognition memory in mice. Behav Brain Res 2007; 189:100-6. [PMID: 18325608 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
No effective remedy has currently been realized to prevent the cognitive impairments of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The interruption of the toxic pathways of amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) still remains promising for the treatment. The involvement of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in the toxicity of Abeta(1-40) in recent reports provide a fresh target for the interruption. In the current study, we evaluated the feasibility of a strategy that target TNF-alpha to prevent the impairment of memory induced by Abeta. The i.c.v-injection of Abeta(25-35) increased the hippocampal mRNA expression of both TNF-alpha and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), of which the former was stronger. The knock-out of TNF-alpha (TNF-alpha (-/-)) in mouse prevented the increase of iNOS mRNA induced by Abeta(25-35). Not only the inhibition of iNOS activity but also TNF-alpha (-/-) prevented the nitration of proteins in the hippocampus and the impairment of recognition memory in mice induced by Abeta(25-35). Daily treatment with thalidomide (20 mg/kg), a preferential degrader of TNF-alpha mRNA, or i.c.v.-injection of an anti-TNF-alpha antibody (10 etag/mouse) prevented the nitration of proteins in the hippocampus and the impairment of recognition memory induced by Abeta(25-35) or Abeta(1-40) in mice. These results suggested the practicability of targeting TNF-alpha as a preventive strategy against Abeta-mediated cognitive impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tursun Alkam
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology & Hospital Pharmacy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8560, Japan
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Bosch ME, Sánchez AJR, Rojas FS, Ojeda CB. Recent advances in analytical determination of thalidomide and its metabolites. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007; 46:9-17. [PMID: 18023317 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2007] [Accepted: 10/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Thalidomide, a racemate, is coming into clinical use as immuno-modulating and anti-inflammatory drug. Thalidomide was approved by the FDA in July 1998 for the treatment of erythema nodusum leprosum associated with leprosy. Recently, thalidomide is proving to be a promising drug in the treatment of a number of cancers and inflammatory diseases, such as multiple myeloma, inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease), HIV and cancer associated cachexia. These effects may chiefly be exerted by S-thalidomide, but the enantiomers are inter-converted in vivo. Thalidomide is given orally, although parenteral administration would be desirable in some clinical situations. Thalidomide has been determined in formulations and, principally in biological fluids by a variety of methods such as high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The overview includes the most relevant analytical methodologies used in its determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Espinosa Bosch
- Department of Pharmacy, General Hospital, University Hospital Virgen del Rocío, Manuel Siurot s/n, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
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Gao ZB, Ding PT, Zhang L, Yuan ZT, Shi J, Wei J, Chen DW. Application of microdialysis to study thein vivo release of pingyangmycin fromin situ gels in rabbits. Biomed Chromatogr 2006; 20:1223-8. [PMID: 16799932 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Microdialysis was used together with HPLC to monitor the local concentration of pingyangmycin hydrochloride (PYM) after embolizing rabbit ear-veins with an injectable sustained release formulation, PYM-Zein/PYM-Zein-sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB), in situ gel. The dialysis probe was perfused at 2 microL/min. The in vivo recovery was 46.6 3.1% (n = 4). The samples were injected directly into HPLC. PYM was detected using UV detector at 291 nm. Separation from other components in the dialysate was performed using a Discovery((R)) RP-Amide C(16) column within 12 min. The response for PYM in the dialysate was linear (r(2) > 0.996) over the range of 2.5-212 microg/mL. The limit of detection and limit of quantitation of PYM in the dialysate were 0.4 and 1.5 microg/mL, respectively. The results demonstrated that the in situ gel of PYM-Zein-SAIB could extend the release of PYM to 4 days. SAIB could significantly cut down the initial burst of PYM from the in situ gels (p < 0.05).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-bin Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenyang 110016, People's Republic of China
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