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Dowd S, Sharo C, Abdulmalik O, Elmer J. Optimizing the lyophilization of Lumbricus terrestris erythrocruorin. ARTIFICIAL CELLS, NANOMEDICINE, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 52:291-299. [PMID: 38733371 PMCID: PMC11218865 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2024.2352003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Haemorrhagic shock is a leading cause of death worldwide. Blood transfusions can be used to treat patients suffering severe blood loss but donated red blood cells (RBCs) have several limitations that limit their availability and use. To solve the problems associated with donated RBCs, several acellular haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) have been developed to restore the most important function of blood: oxygen transport. One promising HBOC is the naturally extracellular haemoglobin (i.e. erythrocruorin) of Lumbricus terrestris (LtEc). The goal of this study was to maximise the portability of LtEc by lyophilising it and then testing its stability at elevated temperatures. To prevent oxidation, several cryoprotectants were screened to determine the optimum formulation for lyophilisation that could minimise oxidation of the haem iron and maximise recovery. Furthermore, samples were also deoxygenated prior to storage to decrease auto-oxidation, while resuspension in a solution containing ascorbic acid was shown to partially reduce LtEc that had oxidised during storage (e.g. from 42% Fe3+ to 11% Fe3+). Analysis of the oxygen equilibria and size of the resuspended LtEc showed that the lyophilisation, storage, and resuspension processes did not affect the oxygen transport properties or the structure of the LtEc, even after 6 months of storage at 40 °C. Altogether, these efforts have yielded a shelf-stable LtEc powder that can be stored for long periods at high temperatures, but future animal studies will be necessary to prove that the resuspended product is a safe and effective oxygen transporter in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Dowd
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Catherine Sharo
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Osheiza Abdulmalik
- Division of Hematology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jacob Elmer
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania, USA
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Dowd S, Lagalante L, Rahlfs J, Sharo C, Opulente D, Lagalante A, Elmer J. Sequencing of the Lumbricus terrestris genome reveals degeneracy in its erythrocruorin genes. Biochimie 2024; 219:130-141. [PMID: 37981225 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2023.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
The erythrocruorin of Lumbricus terrestris (LtEc) is a relatively large macromolecular assembly that consists of at least four different hemoglobin subunits (A, B, C, and D) and four linker subunits (L1, L2, L3, and L4). The complexity and stability of this large structure make LtEc an attractive hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier that could potentially be used as a substitute for donated red blood cells. However, the sequences of the LtEc subunit sequences must be determined before a scalable recombinant expression platform can be developed. The goal of this study was to sequence the L. terrestris genome to identify the complete sequences of the LtEc subunit genes. Our results revealed multiple homologous genes for each subunit (e.g., two homologous A globin genes; A1 and A2), with the exception of the L4 linker. Some of the homologous genes encoded identical peptide sequences (C1 and C2, L1a and L1b), while cDNA and mass spectrometry experiments revealed that some of the homologs are not expressed (e.g., A2). In contrast, multiple sequences for the B, D, L2, and L4 subunits were detected in LtEc samples. These observations reveal novel degeneracy in LtEc and other annelids, along with some new revisions to its previously published peptide sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Dowd
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
| | - Luke Lagalante
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
| | - Jack Rahlfs
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
| | - Catherine Sharo
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
| | - Dana Opulente
- Department of Biology, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
| | - Anthony Lagalante
- Department of Chemistry, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
| | - Jacob Elmer
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA.
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Kruczkowska W, Kciuk M, Pasieka Z, Kłosiński K, Płuciennik E, Elmer J, Waszczykowska K, Kołat D, Kałuzińska-Kołat Ż. The artificial oxygen carrier erythrocruorin-characteristics and potential significance in medicine. J Mol Med (Berl) 2023; 101:961-972. [PMID: 37460699 PMCID: PMC10400677 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-023-02350-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
The diminishing supply and increasing costs of donated blood have motivated research into novel hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) that can serve as red blood cell (RBC) substitutes. HBOCs are versatile agents that can be used in the treatment of hemorrhagic shock. However, many of the RBC substitutes that are based on mammalian hemoglobins have presented key limitations such as instability and toxicity. In contrast, erythrocruorins (Ecs) are other types of HBOCs that may not suffer these disadvantages. Ecs are giant metalloproteins found in annelids, crustaceans, and some other invertebrates. Thus far, the Ecs of Lumbricus terrestris (LtEc) and Arenicola marina (AmEc) are the most thoroughly studied. Based on data from preclinical transfusion studies, it was found that these compounds not only efficiently transport oxygen and have anti-inflammatory properties, but also can be modified to further increase their effectiveness. This literature review focuses on the structure, properties, and application of Ecs, as well as their advantages over other HBOCs. Development of methods for both the stabilization and purification of erythrocruorin could confer to enhanced access to artificial blood resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Kruczkowska
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lodz, Zeligowskiego 7/9, 90-752, Lodz, Poland
| | - Mateusz Kciuk
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Genetics, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Lodz, Banacha 12/16, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Pasieka
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Medical University of Lodz, Narutowicza 60, 90-136, Lodz, Poland
| | - Karol Kłosiński
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Medical University of Lodz, Narutowicza 60, 90-136, Lodz, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Płuciennik
- Department of Functional Genomics, Medical University of Lodz, Zeligowskiego 7/9, 90-752, Lodz, Poland
| | - Jacob Elmer
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, Villanova, PA, USA
| | - Klaudia Waszczykowska
- Department of Functional Genomics, Medical University of Lodz, Zeligowskiego 7/9, 90-752, Lodz, Poland
| | - Damian Kołat
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Medical University of Lodz, Narutowicza 60, 90-136, Lodz, Poland
| | - Żaneta Kałuzińska-Kołat
- Department of Experimental Surgery, Medical University of Lodz, Narutowicza 60, 90-136, Lodz, Poland.
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Timm B, Abdulmalik O, Chakrabarti A, Elmer J. Purification of Lumbricus terrestris erythrocruorin (LtEc) with anion exchange chromatography. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1150:122162. [PMID: 32505113 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The naturally extracellular hemoglobin (erythrocruorin) of the Canadian nightcrawler, Lumbricus terrestris (LtEc), is a unique oxygen transport protein that may be an effective substitute for donated human blood. Indeed, this ultra-high molecular weight (~3.6 MDa) hemoglobin has already been shown to avoid the side effects associated with previous hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers and its high thermal stability (Tm = 56°C) and resistance to heme oxidation (kox = 0.04 hr-1 × 103 at 20°C) allow it to be stored for long periods of time without refrigeration. However, before it can be tested in human clinical trials, an effective and scalable purification process for LtEc must be developed. We have previously purified LtEc for animal studies with tangential flow filtration (TFF), which allows rapid and scalable purification of LtEc based on its relatively large size, but that type of size-based purification may not be able to specifically remove some impurities and high MW (>500 kDa) contaminants like endotoxin (MW = ~1-4 MDa). Anion exchange (AEX) and immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) are two purification methods that have been previously used to purify mammalian hemoglobins, but they have not yet been used to purify large invertebrate hemoglobins like LtEc. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine if AEX and IMAC resins could successfully purify LtEc from crude earthworm homogenate, while also preserving its macromolecular structure and function. Both processes were able to produce purified LtEc with low levels of endotoxin, but IMAC purification induced significantly higher levels of heme oxidation and subunit dissociation than AEX. In addition, the IMAC process required an additional desalting step to enable LtEc binding. In contrast, AEX produced highly pure LtEc that was not dissociated. LtEc purified by AEX also exhibits similar oxygen binding characteristics (P50 = 27.33 ± 1.82 mm Hg, n = 1.58 ± 0.17) to TFF-purified LtEc (P50 = 28.84 ± 0.40 mm Hg, n = 1.93 ± 0.02). Therefore, AEX appears to be the optimal method for LtEc purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Timm
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085, USA
| | - Osheiza Abdulmalik
- Div. of Hematology, Abramson Building, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th St. and Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Atis Chakrabarti
- Tosoh Bioscience, LLC, 3604 Horizon Drive, King of Prussia, PA 19406, USA
| | - Jacob Elmer
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085, USA.
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Ferenz KB, Steinbicker AU. Artificial Oxygen Carriers-Past, Present, and Future-a Review of the Most Innovative and Clinically Relevant Concepts. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2019; 369:300-310. [PMID: 30837280 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.118.254664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood transfusions are a daily practice in hospitals. Since these products are limited in availability and have various, harmful side effects, researchers have pursued the goal to develop artificial blood components for about 40 years. Development of oxygen therapeutics and stem cells are more recent goals. Medline (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?holding=ideudelib), ClinicalTrials.gov (https://clinicaltrials.gov), EU Clinical Trials Register (https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu), and Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (http://www.anzctr.org.au) were searched up to July 2018 using search terms related to artificial blood products in order to identify new and ongoing research over the last 5 years. However, for products that are already well known and important to or relevant in gaining a better understanding of this field of research, the reader is punctually referred to some important articles published over 5 years ago. This review includes not only clinically relevant substances such as heme-oxygenating carriers, perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers, stem cells, and organ conservation, but also includes interesting preclinically advanced compounds depicting the pipeline of potential new products. In- depth insights into specific benefits and limitations of each substance, including the biochemical and physiologic background are included. "Fancy" ideas such as iron-based substances, O2 microbubbles, cyclodextranes, or lugworms are also elucidated. To conclude, this systematic up-to-date review includes all actual achievements and ongoing clinical trials in the field of artificial blood products to pursue the dream of artificial oxygen carrier supply. Research is on the right track, but the task is demanding and challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja B Ferenz
- Institute of Physiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany (K.B.F.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, Westphalian Wilhelminian University Muenster, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (A.U.S.)
| | - Andrea U Steinbicker
- Institute of Physiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany (K.B.F.); and Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, Westphalian Wilhelminian University Muenster, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (A.U.S.)
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Spivack K, Tucker M, Zimmerman D, Nicholas M, Abdulmalik O, Comolli N, Elmer J. Increasing the stability of Lumbricus terrestris erythrocruorin via poly(acrylic acid) conjugation. ARTIFICIAL CELLS, NANOMEDICINE, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 46:1137-1144. [PMID: 29916733 PMCID: PMC6476418 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2018.1480491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Since donated red blood cells must be constantly refrigerated, they are often unavailable in remote areas and battlefields. The goal of this study was to synthesize a highly stable blood substitute that does not require refrigeration. Specifically, the extracellular haemoglobin (a.k.a. erythrocruorin, Ec) of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris erythrocruororin (LtEc) was cross-linked with poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and ethylene diamine (EDA). PAGE analysis of the LtEc nanoparticles reveals cross-linking between subunits, while dynamic light scattering and scanning electron microscopy show that cross-linking significantly increases the size of the LtEc nanoparticles (164 ± 13.9 nm). Cross-linking also significantly increased the thermal stability of the LtEc nanoparticles by 10 °C (Tm = 72 ± 0.84 °C) relative to native LtEc (Tm = 62 ± 0.6 °C). In addition, while native LtEc rapidly dissociates at pH 9, the LtEc nanoparticles resist subunit dissociation up to pH 10. The oxygen affinity of the LtEc nanoparticles (P50 = 6.85 ± 0.13 mm Hg) is much higher than native LtEc (P50 = 26.67 ± 0.4 mm Hg), but the cooperativity (n = 2.43 ± 0.12) is not affected. Altogether, these results show that cross-linking LtEc with PAA and EDA provides a potential blood substitute with increased stability and oxygen affinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle Spivack
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA 19085
| | - Matthew Tucker
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA 19085
| | - Devon Zimmerman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA 19085
| | - Matthew Nicholas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA 19085
| | - Osheiza Abdulmalik
- Division of Hematology, Abramson Building, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th St. & Civic Center Blvd, Philadelphia, PA, USA 19104
| | - Noelle Comolli
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA 19085
| | - Jacob Elmer
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Villanova University, 800 East Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, USA 19085
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Rege K, Mitragotri S. Introduction to Special Issue: 2016 Translational Medicine and Bioengineering Conference. Bioeng Transl Med 2017; 2:137-138. [PMID: 29313028 PMCID: PMC5675101 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kaushal Rege
- Chemical Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- John A Paulson School of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute, Harvard University Cambridge, MA 02138
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