Association of high cost sharing and targeted therapy initiation among elderly Medicare patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma

Quality of Treatment Selection for Medicare Beneficiaries With Cancer

PURPOSE

The Medicare part D Low-Income Subsidy (LIS) improves access to oral cancer drugs, but provides no assistance for clinician-administered/part B drugs. This analysis assessed the association between LIS participation and receipt of optimal cancer treatment.

METHODS

We investigated initial systemic therapy using SEER-Medicare data (2015-2017) and National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Evidence Blocks (EB) as the standard for treatment recommendations. We included cancer clinical scenarios wherein (1) ≥one treatment was optimal (higher efficacy and safety scores) versus other treatments; (2) identifiable in SEER-Medicare (eg, not defined by clinical data unavailable in registry data or claims); and (3) both EB and ASCO Value Framework agreed regarding optimal treatment. We fit logistic regression models to assess the association between receipt of systemic therapy (v no therapy) and patient and provider characteristics. Contingent on receipt of treatment, we modeled the likelihood of receiving a treatment ranked (by EB scores) within the highest or lowest quartile for that cancer type.

RESULTS

Nine thousand two hundred and ninety patients were included across 11 clinical scenarios. Fifty-seven percent (5,336) of patients received any systemic therapy and 43% (3,954) received no systemic therapy. Compared with non-LIS participants, LIS participants were less likely to receive any systemic therapy versus no systemic therapy (odds ratio, 0.64 [95% CI, 0.57 to 0.72]). Contingent on receiving systemic therapy, LIS participants received treatment ranked within the worst quartile 24.8% of the time, compared with 21.9% of non-LIS patients (adjusted prevalence difference, 4.3% [95% CI, 0.5 to 8.2]).

CONCLUSION

LIS participants were less likely to receive systemic therapy at all and were more likely to receive treatments that receive low NCCN EB scores.

Determinants of targeted cancer therapy use in community oncology practice: a qualitative study using the Theoretical Domains Framework and Rummler-Brache process mapping

BACKGROUND

Precision medicine holds enormous potential to improve outcomes for cancer patients, offering improved rates of cancer control and quality of life. Not all patients who could benefit from targeted cancer therapy receive it, and some who may not benefit do receive targeted therapy. We sought to comprehensively identify determinants of targeted therapy use among community oncology programs, where most cancer patients receive their care.

METHODS

Guided by the Theoretical Domains Framework, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 24 community cancer care providers and mapped targeted therapy delivery across 11 cancer care delivery teams using a Rummler-Brache diagram. Transcripts were coded to the framework using template analysis, and inductive coding was used to identify key behaviors. Coding was revised until a consensus was reached.

RESULTS

Intention to deliver precision medicine was high across all participants interviewed, who also reported untenable knowledge demands. We identified distinctly different teams, processes, and determinants for (1) genomic test ordering and (2) delivery of targeted therapies. A key determinant of molecular testing was role alignment. The dominant expectation for oncologists to order and interpret genomic tests is at odds with their role as treatment decision-makers' and pathologists' typical role to stage tumors. Programs in which pathologists considered genomic test ordering as part of their staging responsibilities reported high and timely testing rates. Determinants of treatment delivery were contingent on resources and ability to offset delivery costs, which low- volume programs could not do. Rural programs faced additional treatment delivery challenges.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified novel determinants of targeted therapy delivery that potentially could be addressed through role re-alignment. Standardized, pathology-initiated genomic testing may prove fruitful in ensuring patients eligible for targeted therapy are identified, even if the care they need cannot be delivered at small and rural sites which may have distinct challenges in treatment delivery. Incorporating behavior specification and Rummler-Brache process mapping with determinant analysis may extend its usefulness beyond the identification of the need for contextual adaptation.

The association between cost sharing, prior authorization, and specialty drug utilization: A systematic review

BACKGROUND: Specialty drugs are identified by high monthly costs and complexity of administration. Payers use utilization management strategies, including prior authorization and separate tiers with higher cost sharing, to control spending. These strategies can negatively impact patients' health outcomes through treatment initiation delays, medication abandonment, and nonadherence. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of patient cost sharing on specialty drug utilization and the effect of prior authorization on treatment delay and specialty drug utilization. METHODS: We conducted a literature search in the period between February 2021 and April 2022 using PubMed for articles published in English without restriction on date of publication. We included research papers with prior authorization and cost sharing for specialty drugs as exposure variables and specialty drug utilization as the outcome variable. Studies were reviewed by 2 independent reviewers and relevant information from eligible studies was extracted using a standardized form and approved by 2 reviewers. Review papers, opinion pieces, and projects without data were excluded. RESULTS: Forty-four studies were included in this review after screening and exclusions, 9 on prior authorization and 35 on cost sharing. Patients with lower cost sharing via patient support programs experienced higher adherence, fewer days to fill prescriptions, and lower discontinuation rates. Similar outcomes were noted for patients on low-income subsidy programs. Increasing cost sharing above $100 was associated with up to 75% abandonment rate for certain specialty drugs. This increased level of cost sharing was also associated with higher discontinuation rates and odds. At the same time, decreasing out-of-pocket costs increased initiation of specialty drugs. However, inconsistent results on impact of cost sharing on medication possession ratio (MPR) and proportion of days covered (PDC) were reported. Some studies reported a negative association between higher costs and MPR and PDC; however, MPR and PDC of cancer specialty drugs did not decrease with higher costs. Significant delays in prescription initiation were reported when prior authorization was needed. CONCLUSIONS: Higher levels of patient cost sharing reduce specialty drug use by increasing medication abandonment while generally decreasing initiation and persistence. Similarly, programs that reduce patient cost sharing increase initiation and persistence. In contrast, cost sharing had an inconsistent and bidirectional effect on MPR and PDC. Prior authorization caused treatment delays, but its effects on specialty drug use varied. More research is needed to examine the effect of cost sharing and prior authorization on long-term health outcomes.

Impact of a Hospital-Based Specialty Pharmacy in Partnership With a Care Coordination Organization on Time to Delivery and Receipt of Oral Anticancer Drugs

PURPOSE

Oral anticancer drug (OACD) prescriptions require extensive coordination between providers and payers, which can delay drug receipt. Specialty pharmacies facilitate communication between multiple entities. In 2018, our cancer center partnered with a freestanding organization to implement a hospital-based specialty pharmacy (HB-SP). We evaluated the time to drug receipt (TTR) before and after HB-SP implementation.

METHODS

Data were prospectively collected on all new OACD prescriptions for adult oncology patients from January 1, 2018, to December 31, 2019. In fall 2018, a HB-SP was initiated. We collected patient sociodemographic, clinical, and prescription data. TTR was the number of days from OACD prescription to drug receipt. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine factors associated with TTR ≤ 7 days before and after HB-SP implementation.

RESULTS

In total, 954 patients were included, representing 1,102 new OACDs. The majority of prescribed drugs were targeted OACDs (56%, n = 617), and 71% (n = 779) required prior authorization. Of all prescriptions, 84% (n = 960) were successfully received with an overall median TTR of 7 days. In unadjusted analysis, HB-SP implementation, drug class, race and ethnicity, and prior authorization requirement were significantly associated with TTR. Adjusted analyses found that patients were more likely to receive their drugs ≤ 7 days after HB-SP implementation (53% v 47%; adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.29; 95% CI, 1.00 to 1.68; P = .05).

CONCLUSION

The implementation of a HB-SP in partnership with a collaborative care model contributed to a decrease in TTR for OACDs. This difference is in part attributable to improved care coordination and communication. A centralized approach may improve overall efficiency due to fewer practice disruptions.

Patient- And Provider-Level Predictors of Survival Among Patients With Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma Initiating Oral Anticancer Agents

PURPOSE

In an era of rapid expansion of FDA approvals for oral anticancer agents (OAAs), it is important to understand the factors associated with survival among real-world populations, which include groups not well-represented in pivotal clinical trials of OAAs, such as the elderly, racial minorities, and medically complex patients. Our objective was to evaluate patient- and provider-level characteristics' associations with mortality among a multi-payer cohort of metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) patients who initiated OAAs.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study was conducted using data from the North Carolina state cancer registry linked to multi-payer claims data for the years 2004 to 2015. Provider data were obtained from North Carolina Health Professions Data System and the National Plan & Provider Enumeration System. Included patients were individuals with mRCC who initiated an OAA and survived ≥90 days after beginning treatment. We estimated hazard ratios (HR) and corresponding 95% confidence limits (CL) using Cox hazard models for associations between patient demographics, patient clinical characteristics, provider-level factors, and 2-year all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

The cohort included 207 patients with mRCC who received OAAs. In multivariable models, clinical variables such as frailty (HR: 1.36, 95% CL: 1.11-1.67) and de novo metastatic diagnosis (HR: 2.63, 95%CL: 1.67-4.16) were associated with higher all-cause mortality. Additionally, patients solely on Medicare had higher adjusted all-cause mortality compared with patients with any private insurance (HR: 2.35, 95% CL: 1.32-4.18). No provider-level covariates investigated were associated with all-cause mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Within a real-world population of mRCC patients taking OAAs, survival differed based on patient characteristics. In an era of rapid expansion of FDA approvals for OAAs, these real-world data underscore the continued importance of access to high-quality care, particularly for medically complex patients with limited resources.

Disparities in Clinical Care and Research in Renal Cell Carcinoma

Disparities in cancer screening, prevention, therapy, clinical outcomes, and research are increasingly recognized and pervade all malignancies. In response, several cancer research and clinical care organizations have issued policy statements to acknowledge and address barriers to achieving health equity in cancer care. The increasingly specialized nature of oncology warrants a disease-focused appraisal of existing disparities and potential solutions. Although clear improvements in clinical outcomes have been recently observed for patients with renal cell carcinoma (RCC), these improvements have not been equally shared across diverse populations. This review describes existing RCC cancer disparities and their potential contributing factors and discusses opportunities to improve health equity in clinical research for all patients with RCC.

Trend in Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Utilization, Price, and Out-of-Pocket Costs in Patients With Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia

PURPOSE

Treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) with tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) has improved survival but is associated with significant financial burden. We measured the annual trend in TKI utilization, Medicare gross payment, and patient out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure from 2007 to 2016.

METHODS

We used SEER linked to Medicare part-D claims data to identify prevalent CML cases from 2007 to 2016. TKI utilization was measured as the proportion of cases with at least one TKI fill in each year. Average TKI gross payment and median per-member per-month OOP expenditure were calculated from claims data and plotted annually from 2007 to 2016. Year-to-year percent change in gross payment and OOP expenditure was compared with inflation indices.

RESULTS

The cohort included 3,189 CML cases with at least one TKI claim. The proportion of prevalent patients with a TKI fill in a year increased from 17.9% in 2007 to 52.8% in 2015. The average annual gross payment per 30-day supply of a TKI increased by an average of 12.8% throughout the period from $9,000 to $10,000 US dollars in 2016. There was no increasing trend in median OOP expenditure per 30-day supply, which varied between $450 and $600 US dollars.

CONCLUSION

Rising TKI use and TKI drug prices place considerable financial pressure on Medicare part-D insurers. Although there was no increasing trend in OOP expenditure, it may be burdensome for Medicare patients who are likely retired on a fixed income. Our findings support legislation that mitigates increasing drug prices to protect the Medicare system and its beneficiaries.

Definitive radiotherapy for extracranial oligoprogressive metastatic renal cell carcinoma as a strategy to defer systemic therapy escalation

OBJECTIVE

To study whether delivering definitive radiotherapy (RT) to sites of oligoprogression in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) enabled deferral of systemic therapy (ST) changes without compromising disease control or survival.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We identified patients with mRCC who received RT to three or fewer sites of extracranial progressive disease between 2014 and 2019 at a large tertiary cancer centre. Inclusion criteria were: (1) controlled disease for ≥3 months before oligoprogression, (2) all oligoprogression sites treated with a biologically effective dose of ≥100 Gy, and (3) availability of follow-up imaging. Time-to-event end-points were calculated from the start of RT.

RESULTS

A total of 72 patients were identified (median follow-up 22 months, 95% confidence interval [CI] 19-32 months), with oligoprogressive lesions in lung/mediastinum (n = 35), spine (n = 30), and non-spine bone (n = 5). The most common systemic therapies before oligoprogression were none (n = 33), tyrosine kinase inhibitor (n = 23), and immunotherapy (n = 13). At 1 year, the local control rate was 96% (95% CI 87-99%); progression-free survival (PFS), 52% (95% CI 40-63%); and overall survival, 91% (95% CI 82-96%). At oligoprogression, ST was escalated (n = 16), maintained (n = 49), or discontinued (n = 7), with corresponding median (95% CI) PFS intervals of 19.7 (8.2-27.2) months, 10.1 (6.9-13.2) months, and 9.8 (2.4-28.9) months, respectively. Of the 49 patients maintained on the same ST at oligoprogression, 21 did not subsequently have ST escalation.

CONCLUSION

Patients with oligoprogressive mRCC treated with RT had comparable PFS regardless of ST strategy, suggesting that RT may be a viable approach for delaying ST escalation. Randomised controlled trials comparing treatment of oligoprogression with RT vs ST alone are needed.

Characterizing online crowdfunding campaigns for patients with kidney cancer

Background

Cancer patients incur high care costs; however, there is a paucity of literature characterizing unmet financial obligations for patients with urologic cancers. Kidney cancer patients are particularly burdened by costs associated with novel systemic treatments. This study aimed to ascertain the characteristics of GoFundMe® crowdfunding campaigns for patients with kidney cancer, in order to better understand the financial needs of this population.

Methods

We performed a cross‐sectional, quantitative, and qualitative analysis of all kidney cancer GoFundMe® campaigns since 2010. Fundraising metrics such as goal funds and amount raised, were extracted. Eight independent investigators collected patient, disease and campaign‐level variables from campaign stories (κ = 0.72). In addition, we performed a content analysis of campaign narratives spotlighting the primary appeal of the patient's life story.

Results

A total of 486 GoFundMe® kidney cancer campaigns were reviewed. The median goal funds were 10,000USD [IQR = 5000, 20,000] and the median amount raised was 1450USD [IQR = 578, 4050]. Most campaigns were for adult males (53%) and 62% of adults had children. A minority were for pediatric patients (17%). Thirty‐seven percent of adult patients were primary wage earners and 43% reported losing their job or substantially reducing hours due to illness. Twenty‐nine percent reported no insurance or insufficient coverage. Campaigns most frequently sought funds for medical bills (60%), nonmedical bills (27%), and medical travel (23%). Qualitative campaign narratives mostly emphasized patients’ hardship (46.3%) or high moral character (35.2%). Only 8% of campaigns achieved their target funds.

Conclusions

Despite fundraising efforts, patients with kidney cancer face persistent financial barriers, incurring both medical and nonmedical cost burdens. This may be compounded by limited or no insurance. Cancer care providers should be aware of financial constraints placed on kidney cancer patients, and consider how these may impact treatment regimens.

Changes in initiation of adjuvant endocrine therapy for breast cancer after state health reform

BACKGROUND

Socioeconomic differences in receipt of adjuvant treatment contribute to persistent disparities in breast cancer (BCA) outcomes, including survival. Adjuvant endocrine therapy (AET) substantially reduces recurrence risk and is recommended by clinical guidelines for nearly all women with hormone receptor-positive non-metastatic BCA. However, AET use among uninsured or underinsured populations has been understudied. The health reform implemented by the US state of Massachusetts in 2006 expanded health insurance coverage and increased the scope of benefits for many with coverage. This study examines changes in the initiation of AET among BCA patients in Massachusetts after the health reform.

METHODS

We used Massachusetts Cancer Registry data from 2004 to 2013 for a sample of estrogen receptor (ER)-positive BCA surgical patients aged 20-64 years. We estimated multivariable regression models to assess differential changes in the likelihood initiating AET after Massachusetts health reform by area-level income, comparing women from lower- and higher-income ZIP codes in Massachusetts.

RESULTS

There was a 5-percentage point (p-value< 0.001) relative increase in the likelihood of initiating AET among BCA patients aged 20-64 years in low-income areas, compared to higher-income areas, after the reform. The increase was more pronounced among younger patients aged 20-49 years (7.1-percentage point increase).

CONCLUSIONS

The expansion of health insurance in Massachusetts was associated with a significant relative increase in the likelihood of AET initiation among women in low-income areas compared with those in high-income areas. Our results suggest that expansions of health insurance coverage and improved access to care can increase the number of eligible patients initiating AET and may ameliorate socioeconomic disparities in BCA outcomes.

Factors Modifying the Associations of Single or Combination Programmed Cell Death 1 and Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 Inhibitor Therapies With Survival Outcomes in Patients With Metastatic Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

IMPORTANCE

Programmed cell death 1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) inhibitors are immune checkpoint inhibitors widely used in the treatment of metastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) and other cancers. There is a lack of understanding regarding which factors are associated with therapeutic response.

OBJECTIVES

To conduct a systematic literature review of trials reporting on factors associated with differential response to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors among patients diagnosed with metastatic ccRCC and quantitatively synthesize the magnitude to which each factor modified the response to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors.

DATA SOURCES

The MEDLINE and Cochrane Register of Trials databases were searched for studies published in English from 2006 onward. Searches were last run on September 3, 2019.

STUDY SELECTION

This systematic review and meta-analysis assessed 662 phase 2/3 randomized clinical trials that provided subgroup analyses of any baseline characteristics regarding the treatment response to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors, alone or as part of a combination therapy, with respect to overall survival (OS) or progression-free survival (PFS) among patients with metastatic ccRCC.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

A novel quantitative approach was used to synthesize subgroup findings across trials. The ratio of the subgroup-specific hazard ratios (HRs) from each study were pooled using a random-effects meta-analysis whereby ratios of 1.00 would indicate that the subgroup-specific HRs were equal in magnitude.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Main outcomes were OS and PFS.

RESULTS

From an initial 662 reports, 7 trials were considered eligible for inclusion. Meta-analyses suggested the treatment response to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in patients with metastatic ccRCC was significantly associated with age (OS: ratio of HR for age ≥75 years to HR for age <65 years, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.01-2.26), PD-L1 expression (PFS: ratio of HR for PD-L1 < 1% to HR for PD-L1 ≥ 10%, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.14-4.27; ratio of HR for PD-L1 < 1% to HR for PD-L1 ≥ 1%, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.10-1.68), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center risk score (PFS: ratio of HR for immediate risk score to HR for poor risk score, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.14-2.29; ratio of HR for favorable risk score to HR for poor risk score, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.00-2.34; ratio of HR for favorable risk score to HR for intermediate risk score, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.70-1.30), and sarcomatoid tumor presence (PFS: ratio of HR for no sarcomatoid differentiation to HR for sarcomatoid differentiation, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.07-2.21).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This analysis suggests that older age, low levels of PD-L1 expression, and the absence of sarcomatoid tumor differentiation are associated with a diminished response to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapies with respect to survival outcomes among patients with metastatic ccRCC.

Association between insurance cost-sharing subsidy and postoperative opioid prescription refills among Medicare patients

BACKGROUND

Models of health care coverage with varying degrees of patient cost-sharing have been shown to influence health care behaviors for chronic conditions including medication adherence. The effect of insurance cost-sharing subsidies on the probability of postoperative opioid refill, however, is unclear.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study examined 100% Medicare claims data among patients (N = 21,781) ages 65 and older undergoing orthopedic procedures in Michigan between January 2013 and September 2016. Patients were classified based on the presence of low-income subsidy and on prior opioid exposure using Medicare Part D prescription files of drug events. We investigated the association of these factors with the probability of both initial and second postoperative opioid fill within 90 days from the date of discharge.

RESULTS

In this cohort, 84.6% of patients filled an initial opioid prescription, and 66.4% refilled an opioid prescription. Patients with a full low-income subsidy had greater odds of refill within the postoperative 90 days compared with those patients without a low-income subsidy (odds ratio 1.38, 95% confidence interval 1.18-1.60). Among opioid naïve patients with a full low-income subsidy, the adjusted refill rate was 61.3% (95% confidence interval 58.0-64.7%) compared with 57.6% (95% confidence interval 51.4-63.7%) among those with partial low-income subsidy and 54.2% (95% confidence interval 52.8-55.6%) among patients without low-income subsidy.

CONCLUSION

Among Medicare patients undergoing orthopedic procedures, a full medication subsidy is associated with an increased probability of opioid refill when compared with no subsidy. Going forward, it is critical to lessen financial barriers to ensure all patients have equitable access to postoperative analgesia, including both opioid and nonopioid analgesics by decreasing the patient burden of cost-sharing.

Patterns of Symptom Management Medication Receipt at End-of-Life Among Medicare Beneficiaries With Lung Cancer

CONTEXT

Older adults with advanced lung cancer experience high symptom burden at end of life (EOL), yet hospice enrollment often happens late or not at all. Receipt of medications to manage symptoms in the outpatient setting, outside the Medicare hospice benefit, has not been described.

OBJECTIVES

We examined patterns of symptom management medication receipt at EOL for older adults who died of lung cancer.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort used the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results-Medicare database to identify decedents diagnosed with lung cancer at age 67 years and older between January 2008 and December 2013 who survived six months and greater after diagnosis. Using Medicare Part B and D claims, we identified monthly receipt of outpatient medications for symptomatic management of pain, emotional distress, fatigue, dyspnea, anorexia, and nausea/vomiting. Multivariable logistic regression estimated associations between medication receipt and patient demographic characteristics, comorbidity, and concurrent therapy.

RESULTS

Of the 16,246 included patients, large proportions received medications for dyspnea (70.7%), pain (62.5%), and emotional distress (49.4%), with lower prevalence for other symptoms. Medication receipt increased from six months to one month before death. Women and dual Medicaid enrolled were more likely to receive medications for pain, emotional distress, dyspnea, and nausea/vomiting. Receipt of symptom management medications decreased with increasing age and racial/ethnical minorities.

CONCLUSION

Symptom management medication receipt was common and increasing toward EOL. Lower use by males, older adults, and nonwhites may reflect poor access or poor patient-provider communication. Further research is needed to understand these patterns and assess adequacy of symptom management in the outpatient setting.

The impact of copay assistance on patient out-of-pocket costs and treatment rates with ALK inhibitors

INTRODUCTION

The patient cost burden of oral anticancer medicines has been associated with prescription abandonment, delayed treatment initiation, and poorer health outcomes in the US. Since 2011, several small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been approved for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with rearrangement of the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene. The objective of this study was to measure the impact of copay assistance on patient cost sharing and treatment patterns in patients prescribed oral ALK inhibitors (ALKi's).

METHODS

Patterns of claims approval/rejection and payment/reversal, out-of-pocket (OOP) costs, and treatment persistence were reported for patients identified in the IQVIA Formulary Impact Analyzer database from January 2013 to August 2017 linked to a medical claims database. The primary study cohorts were patients with copay assistance, including manufacturer's copay cards, other discount cards, or free-trial vouchers, on the index ALKi claim, and patients without copay assistance at any time during the follow-up period.

RESULTS

In total, 3,143 patients were included in analyses related to claim patterns, and 1,685 patients were included in analyses related to treatment persistence. Copay assistance decreased the OOP cost for the first approved ALKi by $1,930, on average. Patients with copay assistance picked up ALKi prescriptions from the pharmacy sooner than patients without copay assistance (2.6 days vs 25.7 days). In adjusted analyses, patients with copay assistance had 88.2% lower risk of abandoning their first approved prescription and 24.3% lower risk of discontinuing treatment with the first observed ALKi (all p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Copay assistance reduced the patient cost burden for ALKi's and was associated with patients picking up their ALKi prescriptions, beginning ALKi treatment sooner, and remaining on treatment.

Targeting Tumor Markers with Antisense Peptides: An Example of Human Prostate Specific Antigen

The purpose of this paper was to outline the development of short peptide targeting of the human prostate specific antigen (hPSA), and to evaluate its effectiveness in staining PSA in human prostate cancer tissue. The targeting of the hPSA antigen by means of antisense peptide AVRDKVG was designed according to a three-step method involving: 1. The selection of the molecular target (hPSA epitope), 2. the modeling of an antisense peptide (paratope) based on the epitope sequence, and 3. the spectroscopic evaluation of sense–antisense peptide binding. We then modified standard hPSA immunohistochemical staining practice by using a biotinylated antisense peptide instead of the standard monoclonal antibody and compared the results of both procedures. Immunochemical testing on human tissue showed the applicability of the antisense peptide technology to human molecular targets. This methodology represents a new approach to deriving peptide ligands and potential lead compounds for the development of novel diagnostic substances, biopharmaceuticals and vaccines.

Economic Burden of Renal Cell Carcinoma-Part I: An Updated Review

BACKGROUND

The economic burden of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) had been reported to be significant in a previous review published in 2011.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to perform an updated review by synthesizing economic studies related to the treatment of RCC that have been published since the previous review.

METHODS

We performed a literature search in PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library, covering English-language studies published between June 2010 and August 2018. We categorized these articles by type of analyses [cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), cost analysis, and cost of illness (COI)] and treatment setting (cancer status and treatment), discussed findings from these articles, and synthesized information from each article in summary tables.

RESULTS

We identified 52 studies from 2317 abstracts/titles deemed relevant from the initial search, including 21 CEA, 23 cost analysis, and 8 COI studies. For localized RCC, costs were found to be positively associated with the aggressiveness of the local treatment. For metastatic RCC (mRCC), pazopanib was reported to be cost effective in the first-line setting. We also found that the economic burden of RCC has increased over time.

CONCLUSION

RCC continues to impose a substantial economic burden to the healthcare system. Despite the large number of treatment alternatives now available for advanced RCC, the cost effectiveness and budgetary impact of many new agents remain unknown and warrant greater attention in future research.

Forkhead-box series expression network is associated with outcome of clear-cell renal cell carcinoma

Previous studies have demonstrated that several members of the Forkhead-box (FOX) family of genes are associated with tumor progression and metastasis. The objective of the current study was to screen candidate FOX family genes identified from analysis of molecular networks in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). The expression of FOX family genes as well as FOX family-associated genes was examined, and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort (n=525). Patient characteristics, including sex, age, tumor diameter, laterality, tumor-node-metastasis, tumor grade, stage, white blood cell count, platelet count, the levels of hemoglobin, overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS), were collected for univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards ratio analyses. A total of seven candidate FOX family genes were selected from the TCGA database subsequent to univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards ratio analyses. FOXA1, FOXA2, FOXD1, FOXD4L2, FOXK2 and FOXL1 were associated with poor OS time, while FOXA1, FOXA2, FOXD1 and FOXK2 were associated with poor DFS time (P<0.05). FOXN2 was associated with favorable outcomes for overall and disease-free survival (P<0.05). In the gene cluster network analysis, the expression of FOX family-associated genes, including nuclear receptor coactivator (NCOA)1, NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase flavoprotein 3 (NDUFV3), phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PISD) and pyruvate kinase liver and red blood cell (PKLR), were independent prognostic factors for OS in patients with ccRCC. Results of the present study revealed that the expression of FOX family genes, including FOXA1, FOXA2, FOXD1, FOXD4L2, FOXK2 and FOXL1, and FOX family-associated genes, including NCOA1, NDUFV3, PISD and PKLR, are independent prognostic factors for patients with ccRCC.

Association of high cost sharing and targeted therapy initiation among elderly Medicare patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma

High out-of-pocket costs may limit access to oral therapies covered by patients' prescription drug benefits. We explored financial barriers to treatment initiation in patients newly diagnosed with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) by comparing Medicare Part D patients with low out-of-pocket costs due to receipt of full low-income subsidies (LIS beneficiaries) to their counterparts who were responsible for more than 25% cost sharing during Medicare's initial coverage phase (non-LIS beneficiaries). We used 2011-2013 100% Medicare claims for non-LIS and LIS beneficiaries newly diagnosed with metastases in the liver, lung, or bone to examine targeted therapy treatment initiation rates and time to initiation for (1) oral medications (sorafenib, sunitinib, everolimus, pazopanib, or axitinib) covered under Medicare's prescription drug benefit (Part D); (2) injected or infused medications (temsirolimus or bevacizumab) covered by Medicare's medical benefit (Part B); and (3) any (Part D or Part B) targeted therapy. The final sample included 1721 patients. On average, non-LIS patients were responsible for out-of-pocket costs of ≥$2,800 for their initial oral prescription, as compared to ≤$6.60 for LIS patients. Compared to LIS patients, a lower percentage of non-LIS patients initiated oral therapies (risk-adjusted rates, 20.7% vs. 33.9%; odds ratio [OR] = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.36-0.67, P < 0.001) and any targeted therapies (26.7% vs. 40.4%, OR = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.38-0.71, P < 0.001). Non-LIS patients were also slower to access therapy. High cost sharing was associated with reduced and/or delayed access to targeted therapies under Medicare Part D, suggesting that financial barriers play a role in treatment decisions.