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Pomorski A, Krężel A. Biarsenical fluorescent probes for multifunctional site-specific modification of proteins applicable in life sciences: an overview and future outlook. Metallomics 2021; 12:1179-1207. [PMID: 32658234 DOI: 10.1039/d0mt00093k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent modification of proteins of interest (POI) in living cells is desired to study their behaviour and functions in their natural environment. In a perfect setting it should be easy to perform, inexpensive, efficient and site-selective. Although multiple chemical and biological methods have been developed, only a few of them are applicable for cellular studies thanks to their appropriate physical, chemical and biological characteristics. One such successful system is a tetracysteine tag/motif and its selective biarsenical binders (e.g. FlAsH and ReAsH). Since its discovery in 1998 by Tsien and co-workers, this method has been enhanced and revolutionized in terms of its efficiency, formed complex stability and breadth of application. Here, we overview the whole field of knowledge, while placing most emphasis on recent reports. We showcase the improvements of classical biarsenical probes with various optical properties as well as multifunctional molecules that add new characteristics to proteins. We also present the evolution of affinity tags and motifs of biarsenical probes demonstrating much more possibilities in cellular applications. We summarize protocols and reported observations so both beginners and advanced users of biarsenical probes can troubleshoot their experiments. We address the concerns regarding the safety of biarsenical probe application. We showcase examples in virology, studies on receptors or amyloid aggregation, where application of biarsenical probes allowed observations that previously were not possible. We provide a summary of current applications ranging from bioanalytical sciences to allosteric control of selected proteins. Finally, we present an outlook to encourage more researchers to use these magnificent probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Pomorski
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland.
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2
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Hu G, Jia H, Hou Y, Han X, Gan L, Si J, Cho DH, Zhang H, Fang J. Decrease of Protein Vicinal Dithiols in Parkinsonism Disclosed by a Monoarsenical Fluorescent Probe. Anal Chem 2020; 92:4371-4378. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guodong Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Huiyi Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Yanan Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Xiao Han
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Lu Gan
- Department of Heavy Ion Radiation Medicine, Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 509 Nanchang Road, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Jing Si
- Department of Heavy Ion Radiation Medicine, Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 509 Nanchang Road, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Dong-Hyung Cho
- School of Life Sciences, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro Bukgu, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Heavy Ion Radiation Medicine, Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 509 Nanchang Road, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
| | - Jianguo Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, China
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3
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Hu G, Jia H, Zhao L, Cho DH, Fang J. Small molecule fluorescent probes of protein vicinal dithiols. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2019.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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4
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Chia HE, Marsh ENG, Biteen JS. Extending fluorescence microscopy into anaerobic environments. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2019; 51:98-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2018] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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5
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Mari E, Bousmah Y, Boutin C, Léonce E, Milanole G, Brotin T, Berthault P, Erard M. Bimodal Detection of Proteins by 129 Xe NMR and Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Chembiochem 2019; 20:1450-1457. [PMID: 30650230 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
A full understanding of biological phenomena involves sensitive and noninvasive detection. Herein, we report the optimization of a probe for intracellular proteins that combines the advantages of fluorescence and hyperpolarized 129 Xe NMR spectroscopy detection. The fluorescence detection part is composed of six residues containing a tetracysteine tag (-CCXXCC-) genetically incorporated into the protein of interest and of a small organic molecule, CrAsH. CrAsH becomes fluorescent if it binds to the tetracysteine tag. The part of the biosensor that enables detection by means of 129 Xe NMR spectroscopy, which is linked to the CrAsH moiety by a spacer, is based on a cryptophane core that is fully suited to reversibly host xenon. Three different peptides, containing the tetracysteine tag and four organic biosensors of different stereochemistry, are benchmarked to propose the best couple that is fully suited for the in vitro detection of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Mari
- NIMBE, CEA, CNRS, Université de Paris Saclay, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Batiment 349, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Yasmina Bousmah
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Batiment 349, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Céline Boutin
- NIMBE, CEA, CNRS, Université de Paris Saclay, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Estelle Léonce
- NIMBE, CEA, CNRS, Université de Paris Saclay, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Gaelle Milanole
- SCBM, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Thierry Brotin
- Université Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR 5182, Université Lyon 1, Laboratoire de Chimie, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon, France
| | - Patrick Berthault
- NIMBE, CEA, CNRS, Université de Paris Saclay, CEA Saclay, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Marie Erard
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Batiment 349, 91405, Orsay, France
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6
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Marsh-Armstrong B, Fajnzylber JM, Korntner S, Plaman BA, Bishop AC. The Allosteric Site on SHP2's Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Domain is Targetable with Druglike Small Molecules. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:15763-15770. [PMID: 30533581 PMCID: PMC6275946 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Difficulties in developing active-site-directed protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) inhibitors have led to the perception that PTPs are "undruggable", highlighting the need for new means to target pharmaceutically important PTPs allosterically. Recently, we characterized an allosteric-inhibition site on the PTP domain of Src-homology-2-domain-containing PTP 2 (SHP2), a key anticancer drug target. The central feature of SHP2's allosteric site is a nonconserved cysteine residue (C333) that can potentially be labeled with electrophilic compounds for selective SHP2 inhibition. Here, we describe the first directed discovery effort for C333-targeted allosteric SHP2 inhibitors. By screening a previously reported library of reversible, covalent inhibitors, we identified a lead compound, which was modified to yield an irreversible inhibitor (12), that inhibits SHP2 allosterically and selectively through interaction with C333. These findings provide a novel paradigm for allosteric-inhibitor discovery on SHP2, one that may help to circumvent the challenges inherent in targeting SHP2's active site.
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Kormos A, Koehler C, Fodor EA, Rutkai ZR, Martin ME, Mező G, Lemke EA, Kele P. Bistetrazine-Cyanines as Double-Clicking Fluorogenic Two-Point Binder or Crosslinker Probes. Chemistry 2018; 24:8841-8847. [PMID: 29676491 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201800910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Fluorogenic probes can be used to minimize the background fluorescence of unreacted and nonspecifically adsorbed reagents. The preceding years have brought substantial developments in the design and synthesis of bioorthogonally applicable fluorogenic systems mainly based on the quenching effects of azide and tetrazine moieties. The modulation power exerted by these bioorthogonal motifs typically becomes less efficient on more conjugated systems; that is, on probes with redshifted emission wavelength. To reach efficient quenching, that is, fluorogenicity, even in the red range of the spectrum, we present the synthesis, fluorogenic, and conjugation characterization of bistetrazine-cyanine probes with emission maxima between 600 and 620 nm. The probes can bind to genetically altered proteins harboring an 11-amino acid peptide tag with two appending cyclooctyne motifs. Moreover, we also demonstrate the use of these bistetrazines as fluorogenic, covalent cross-linkers between monocyclooctynylated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Attila Kormos
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar tudósok krt. 2., 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Christine Koehler
- Departments of Biology and Chemistry, Pharmacy and Geosciences, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Johannes-von-Mullerweg 6, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Ackermannweg 4, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,EMBL, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Eszter A Fodor
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar tudósok krt. 2., 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsófia R Rutkai
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar tudósok krt. 2., 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Madison E Martin
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar tudósok krt. 2., 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Mező
- MTA-ELTE Research Group of Peptide Chemistry, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pázmány Péter sétány 1a, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Edward A Lemke
- Departments of Biology and Chemistry, Pharmacy and Geosciences, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Johannes-von-Mullerweg 6, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Ackermannweg 4, 55128, Mainz, Germany.,EMBL, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Péter Kele
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar tudósok krt. 2., 1117, Budapest, Hungary
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Tanaka J, Davis TP, Wilson P. Organic Arsenicals as Functional Motifs in Polymer and Biomaterials Science. Macromol Rapid Commun 2018; 39:e1800205. [PMID: 29806240 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201800205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Arsenic (As) exhibits diverse (bio)chemical reactivity and biological activity depending upon its oxidation state. However, this distinctive reactivity has been largely overlooked across many fields owing to concerns regarding the toxicity of arsenic. Recently, a clinical renaissance in the use of arsenicals, including organic arsenicals that are known to be less toxic than inorganic arsenicals, alludes to the possibility of broader acceptance and application in the field of polymer and biomaterials science. Here, current examples of polymeric/macromolecular arsenicals are reported to stimulate interest and highlight their potential as a novel platform for functional, responsive, and bioactive materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joji Tanaka
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Thomas P Davis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 399 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3152, Australia
| | - Paul Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.,ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University (Parkville Campus), 399 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, 3152, Australia
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9
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Korntner S, Pomorski A, Krężel A, Bishop AC. Optimized allosteric inhibition of engineered protein tyrosine phosphatases with an expanded palette of biarsenical small molecules. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:2610-2620. [PMID: 29673715 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), which catalyze the dephosphorylation of phosphotyrosine in protein substrates, are important cell-signaling regulators, as well as potential drug targets for a range of human diseases. Chemical tools for selectively targeting the activities of individual PTPs would help to elucidate PTP signaling roles and potentially expedite the validation of PTPs as therapeutic targets. We have recently reported a novel strategy for the design of non-natural allosteric-inhibition sites in PTPs, in which a tricysteine moiety is engineered within the PTP catalytic domain at a conserved location outside of the active site. Introduction of the tricysteine motif, which does not exist in any wild-type PTP, serves to sensitize target PTPs to inhibition by a biarsenical compound, providing a generalizable strategy for the generation of allosterically sensitized (as) PTPs. Here we show that the potency, selectivity, and kinetics of asPTP inhibition can be significantly improved by exploring the inhibitory action of a range of biarsenical compounds that differ in interarsenical distance, steric bulk, and electronic structure. By investigating the inhibitor sensitivities of five asPTPs from four different subfamilies, we have found that asPTP catalytic domains can be broadly divided into two groups: one that is most potently inhibited by biarsenical compounds with large interarsenical distances, such as AsCy3-EDT2, and one that is most potently inhibited by compounds with relatively small interarsenical distances, such as FlAsH-EDT2. Moreover, we show that a tetrachlorinated derivative of FlAsH-EDT2, Cl4FlAsH-EDT2, targets asPTPs significantly more potently than the parent compound, both in vitro and in asPTP-expressing cells. Our results show that biarsenicals with altered interarsenical distances and electronic properties are important tools for optimizing the control of asPTP activity and, more broadly, suggest that diversification of biarsenical libraries can serve to increase the efficacy of these compounds in targeted control of protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Korntner
- Amherst College, Department of Chemistry, Amherst, MA 01002, USA
| | - Adam Pomorski
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Artur Krężel
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Anthony C Bishop
- Amherst College, Department of Chemistry, Amherst, MA 01002, USA.
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10
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Chan WC, Knowlton GS, Bishop AC. Activation of Engineered Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases with the Biarsenical Compound AsCy3-EDT 2. Chembiochem 2017; 18:1950-1958. [PMID: 28745017 PMCID: PMC5923034 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201700253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Methods for activating signaling enzymes hold significant potential for the study of cellular signal transduction. Here we present a strategy for engineering chemically activatable protein tyrosine phosphatases (actPTPs). To generate actPTP1B, we introduced three cysteine point mutations in the enzyme's WPD loop. Biarsenical compounds were screened for the capability to bind actPTP1B's WPD loop and increase its phosphatase activity. We identified AsCy3-EDT2 as a robust activator that selectively targets actPTP1B in proteomic mixtures and intact cells. Introduction of the corresponding mutations in T-cell PTP also generates an enzyme (actTCPTP) that is strongly activated by AsCy3-EDT2 . Given the conservation of WPD-loop structure among the classical PTPs, our results potentially provide the groundwork of a widely generalizable approach for generating actPTPs as tools for elucidating PTP signaling roles as well as connections between dysregulated PTP activity and human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai Cheung Chan
- Amherst College, Department of Chemistry, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
| | | | - Anthony C. Bishop
- Amherst College, Department of Chemistry, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
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11
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Bohl C, Pomorski A, Seemann S, Knospe AM, Zheng C, Krężel A, Rolfs A, Lukas J. Fluorescent probes for selective protein labeling in lysosomes: a case of α-galactosidase A. FASEB J 2017; 31:5258-5267. [PMID: 28821638 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201700058rrrr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence-based live-cell imaging (LCI) of lysosomal glycosidases is often hampered by unfavorable pH and redox conditions that reduce fluorescence output. Moreover, most lysosomal glycosidases are low-mass soluble proteins that do not allow for bulky fluorescent protein fusions. We selected α-galactosidase A (GALA) as a model lysosomal glycosidase involved in Anderson-Fabry disease (AFD) for the current LCI approach. Examination of the subcellular localization of AFD-causing mutants can reveal the mechanism underlying cellular trafficking deficits. To minimize genetic GALA modification, we employed a biarsenical labeling protocol with tetracysteine (TC-tag) detection. We tested the efficiency of halogen-substituted biarsenical probes to interact with C-terminally TC-tagged GALA peptide at pH 4.5 in vitro and identified F2FlAsH-EDT2 as a superior detection reagent for GALA. This probe provides improved signal/noise ratio in labeled COS-7 cells transiently expressing TC-tagged GALA. The investigated fluorescence-based LCI technology of TC-tagged lysosomal protein using an improved biarsenical probe can be used to identify novel compounds that promote proper trafficking of mutant GALA to lysosomal compartments and rescue the mutant phenotype.-Bohl, C., Pomorski, A., Seemann, S., Knospe, A.-M., Zheng, C., Krężel, A., Rolfs, A., Lukas, J. Fluorescent probes for selective protein labeling in lysosomes: a case of α-galactosidase A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelius Bohl
- Albrecht-Kossel-Institute for Neuroregeneration, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany; and
| | - Adam Pomorski
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Susanne Seemann
- Albrecht-Kossel-Institute for Neuroregeneration, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany; and
| | - Anne-Marie Knospe
- Albrecht-Kossel-Institute for Neuroregeneration, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany; and
| | - Chaonan Zheng
- Albrecht-Kossel-Institute for Neuroregeneration, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany; and
| | - Artur Krężel
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Arndt Rolfs
- Albrecht-Kossel-Institute for Neuroregeneration, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany; and
| | - Jan Lukas
- Albrecht-Kossel-Institute for Neuroregeneration, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany; and
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12
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Demeter O, Kormos A, Koehler C, Mező G, Németh K, Kozma E, Takács LB, Lemke EA, Kele P. Bisazide Cyanine Dyes as Fluorogenic Probes for Bis-Cyclooctynylated Peptide Tags and as Fluorogenic Cross-Linkers of Cyclooctynylated Proteins. Bioconjug Chem 2017; 28:1552-1559. [PMID: 28441009 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Herein we present the synthesis and fluorogenic characterization of a series of double-quenched bisazide cyanine probes with emission maxima between 565 and 580 nm that can participate in covalent, two-point binding bioorthogonal tagging schemes in combination with bis-cyclooctynylated peptides. Compared to other fluorogenic cyanines, these double-quenched systems showed remarkable fluorescence intensity increase upon formation of cyclic dye-peptide conjugates. Furthermore, we also demonstrated that these bisazides are useful fluorogenic cross-linking platforms that are able to form a covalent linkage between monocyclooctynylated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Demeter
- "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila Kormos
- "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Christine Koehler
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory , Meyerhofstrasse 1, D-69117, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gábor Mező
- MTA-ELTE Research Group of Peptide Chemistry, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Pázmány Péter sétány 1a, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Krisztina Németh
- "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eszter Kozma
- "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Levente B Takács
- "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Edward A Lemke
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory , Meyerhofstrasse 1, D-69117, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Péter Kele
- "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences , Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
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13
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Stumpf AD, Hoffmann C. Optical probes based on G protein-coupled receptors - added work or added value? Br J Pharmacol 2015; 173:255-66. [PMID: 26562218 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2003, the first report was published that presented proof of principle for a novel class of FRET biosensors for use in living cells. This novel sensor class was built on the base of GPCRs, which represent an integral transmembrane receptor family passing the membrane seven times and are thus also called the 7TM receptor family. As an estimated number of 30% of all marketed drugs exert their effects by modulating GPCR function, these initial reports promised the gain of novel insights into receptor function. Such FRET sensors have slowly, but progressively, made their way into the standard toolbox for GPCR research as several groups are now reporting on the generation and use of these sensors. By now, FRET sensors have been reported for 18 different GPCRs, and more are expected to be added. These particular receptor sensors have been used to investigate receptor dynamics in living cells to evaluate ligand binding and ligand efficacy in real time, to study voltage and mechanosensitivity of GPCRs or to study the influence of receptor polymorphisms on receptor function in real-time. In this review we will describe the different design principles of these GPCR-based sensors and will summarize their current biological applications in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Stumpf
- Bio-Imaging Center, Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum für Experimentelle Medizin, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - C Hoffmann
- Bio-Imaging Center, Rudolf-Virchow-Zentrum für Experimentelle Medizin, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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14
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Pomorski A, Adamczyk J, Bishop AC, Krężel A. Probing the target-specific inhibition of sensitized protein tyrosine phosphatases with biarsenical probes. Org Biomol Chem 2015; 13:1395-403. [PMID: 25460004 DOI: 10.1039/c4ob02256d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Selective control of enzyme activity is critical for elucidating the roles of specific proteins in signaling pathways. One potential means for developing truly target-specific inhibitors involves the use of protein engineering to sensitize a target enzyme to inhibition by a small molecule that does not inhibit homologous wild-type enzymes. Previously, it has been shown that protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) can be sensitized to inhibition by a biarsenical probe, FlAsH-EDT2, which inhibits PTP activity by specifically binding to cysteine residues that have been introduced into catalytically important regions. In the present study, we developed an array of biarsenical probes, some newly synthesized and some previously reported, to investigate for the first time the structure-activity relationships for PTP inhibition by biarsenicals. Our data show that biarsenical probes which contain substitutions at the 2' and 7' positions are more effective than FlAsH-EDT2 at inhibiting sensitized PTPs. The increased potency of 2',7'-substituted probes was observed when PTPs were assayed with both para-nitrophenylphosphate and phosphopeptide PTP substrates and at multiple probe concentrations. The data further indicate that the enhanced inhibitory properties are the result of increased binding affinity between the 2',7'-substituted biarsenical probes and sensitized PTPs. In addition we provide previously unknown physicochemical and stability data for various biarsenical probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Pomorski
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland.
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15
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Chio CM, Cheng KW, Bishop AC. Direct Chemical Activation of a Rationally Engineered Signaling Enzyme. Chembiochem 2015; 16:1735-9. [PMID: 26063205 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Few chemical strategies for activating enzymes have been developed. Here we show that a biarsenical compound (FlAsH) can directly activate a rationally engineered protein tyrosine phosphatase (Shp2 PTP) by disrupting autoinhibitory interactions between Shp2's N-terminal SH2 domain and its PTP domain. We found that introducing a tricysteine motif at a loop of Shp2's N-SH2 domain confers affinity for FlAsH; binding of FlAsH to the cysteine-enriched loop relieves Shp2's inhibitory interdomain interaction and substantially increases the enzyme's PTP activity. Activation of engineered Shp2 is substrate independent and is observed in the contexts of both purified enzyme and complex proteomes. A chemical means for activating Shp2 could be useful for investigating its roles in signaling and oncogenesis, and the loop-targeting strategy described herein could provide a blueprint for the development of target-specific activators of other autoinhibited enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M Chio
- Department of Chemistry, Amherst College, Amherst, MA 01002 (USA)
| | - Karen W Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, Amherst College, Amherst, MA 01002 (USA)
| | - Anthony C Bishop
- Department of Chemistry, Amherst College, Amherst, MA 01002 (USA).
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16
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Mahalingam M, Fessenden JD. Methods for labeling skeletal muscle ion channels site-specifically with fluorophores suitable for FRET-based structural analysis. Methods Enzymol 2015; 556:455-74. [PMID: 25857795 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2014.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle excitation-contraction coupling is triggered by the concerted action of two enormous Ca(2+) channel complexes, the dihydropyridine receptor and the type 1 ryanodine receptor. Recent advances in our understanding of the structure of these large Ca(2+) channels have been driven by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based analysis. A methodological challenge in conducting these FRET measurements is the ability to site-specifically label these huge ion channels with donor and acceptor fluorophores capable of undergoing energy transfer. In this chapter, we detail specific protocols for tagging large membrane proteins with these fluorescent probes using three orthogonal labeling methods: fluorescent protein fusions, biarsenical reagents directed to engineered tetracysteine tags, and Cy3/5 nitrilotriacetic acid conjugates that bind to poly-histidine tags.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohana Mahalingam
- Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - James D Fessenden
- Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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17
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Chio CM, Lim CS, Bishop AC. Targeting a cryptic allosteric site for selective inhibition of the oncogenic protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp2. Biochemistry 2015; 54:497-504. [PMID: 25519989 PMCID: PMC4303306 DOI: 10.1021/bi5013595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Protein
tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) have been the subject of considerable
pharmaceutical-design efforts because of the ubiquitous connections
between misregulation of PTP activity and human disease. PTP-inhibitor
discovery has been hampered, however, by the difficulty in identifying
cell-permeable compounds that can selectively target PTP active sites,
and no PTP inhibitors have progressed to the clinic. The identification
of allosteric sites on target PTPs therefore represents a potentially
attractive solution to the druggability problem of PTPs. Here we report
that the oncogenic PTP Shp2 contains an allosteric-inhibition site
that renders the enzyme sensitive to potent and selective inhibition
by cell-permeable biarsenical compounds. Because Shp2 contains no
canonical tetracysteine biarsenical-binding motif, the enzyme’s
inhibitor-binding site is not readily predictable from its primary
or three-dimensional structure. Intriguingly, however, Shp2’s
PTP domain does contain a cysteine residue (C333) at a position that
is removed from the active site and is occupied by proline in other
classical PTPs. We show that Shp2’s unusual cysteine residue
constitutes part of a Shp2-specific allosteric-inhibition site, and
that Shp2’s sensitivity to biarsenicals is dependent on the
presence of the naturally occurring C333. The determinative role of
this residue in conferring inhibitor sensitivity is surprising because
C333’s side chain is inaccessible to solvent in Shp2 crystal
structures. The discovery of this cryptic Shp2 allosteric site may
provide a means for targeting Shp2 activity with high specificity
and suggests that buried-yet-targetable allosteric sites could be
similarly uncovered in other protein families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M Chio
- Department of Chemistry, Amherst College , Amherst, Massachusetts 01002, United States
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18
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Chen B, Liu Q, Popowich A, Shen S, Yan X, Zhang Q, Li XF, Weinfeld M, Cullen WR, Le XC. Therapeutic and analytical applications of arsenic binding to proteins. Metallomics 2015; 7:39-55. [DOI: 10.1039/c4mt00222a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge of arsenic binding to proteins advances the development of bioanalytical techniques and therapeutic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beibei Chen
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
| | - Qingqing Liu
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - Shengwen Shen
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
| | - Xiaowen Yan
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
| | - Qi Zhang
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
| | - Xing-Fang Li
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - William R. Cullen
- Department of Chemistry
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver, Canada
| | - X. Chris Le
- Division of Analytical and Environmental Toxicology
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
- University of Alberta
- Edmonton, Canada
- Department of Chemistry
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19
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Sapra A, Ramadan D, Thorpe C. Multivalency in the inhibition of oxidative protein folding by arsenic(III) species. Biochemistry 2014; 54:612-21. [PMID: 25506675 PMCID: PMC4303313 DOI: 10.1021/bi501360e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The
renewed use of arsenicals as chemotherapeutics has rekindled
interest in the biochemistry of As(III) species. In this work, simple
bis- and tris-arsenical derivatives were synthesized with the aim
of exploiting the chelate effect in the inhibition of thiol-disulfide
oxidoreductases (here, Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase, QSOX, and protein
disulfide isomerase, PDI) that utilize two or more CxxC motifs in
the catalysis of oxidative protein folding. Coupling 4-aminophenylarsenoxide
(APAO) to acid chloride or anhydride derivatives yielded two bis-arsenical
prototypes, BA-1 and BA-2, and a tris-arsenical, TA-1. Unlike the
monoarsenical, APAO, these new reagents proved to be strong inhibitors
of oxidative protein folding in the presence of a realistic intracellular
concentration of competing monothiol (here, 5 mM reduced glutathione,
GSH). However, this inhibition does not reflect direct inactivation
of QSOX or PDI, but avid binding of MVAs to the reduced unfolded protein
substrates themselves. Titrations of reduced riboflavin-binding protein
with MVAs show that all 18 protein −SH groups can be captured
by these arsenicals. With reduced RNase, addition of substoichiometric
levels of MVAs is accompanied by the formation of Congo Red- and Thioflavin
T-positive fibrillar aggregates. Even with Kd values of ∼50 nM, MVAs are ineffective inhibitors
of PDI in the presence of millimolar levels of competing GSH. These
results underscore the difficulties of designing effective and specific
arsenical inhibitors for folded enzymes and proteins. Some of the
cellular effects of arsenicals likely reflect their propensity to
associate very tightly and nonspecifically to conformationally mobile
cysteine-rich regions of proteins, thereby interfering with folding
and/or function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Sapra
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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20
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Schulte-Zweckel J, Rosi F, Sreenu D, Schröder H, Niemeyer CM, Triola G. Site-specific, reversible and fluorescent immobilization of proteins on CrAsH-modified surfaces for microarray analytics. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:12761-4. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc04120h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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21
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Pomorski A, Kochańczyk T, Miłoch A, Krężel A. Method for accurate determination of dissociation constants of optical ratiometric systems: chemical probes, genetically encoded sensors, and interacting molecules. Anal Chem 2013; 85:11479-86. [PMID: 24180305 DOI: 10.1021/ac402637h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ratiometric chemical probes and genetically encoded sensors are of high interest for both analytical chemists and molecular biologists. Their high sensitivity toward the target ligand and ability to obtain quantitative results without a known sensor concentration have made them a very useful tool in both in vitro and in vivo assays. Although ratiometric sensors are widely used in many applications, their successful and accurate usage depends on how they are characterized in terms of sensing target molecules. The most important feature of probes and sensors besides their optical parameters is an affinity constant toward analyzed molecules. The literature shows that different analytical approaches are used to determine the stability constants, with the ratio approach being most popular. However, oversimplification and lack of attention to detail results in inaccurate determination of stability constants, which in turn affects the results obtained using these sensors. Here, we present a new method where ratio signal is calibrated for borderline values of intensities of both wavelengths, instead of borderline ratio values that generate errors in many studies. At the same time, the equation takes into account the cooperativity factor or fluorescence artifacts and therefore can be used to characterize systems with various stoichiometries and experimental conditions. Accurate determination of stability constants is demonstrated utilizing four known optical ratiometric probes and sensors, together with a discussion regarding other, currently used methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Pomorski
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław , Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
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22
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Fu N, Xiong Y, Squier TC. Optimized design and synthesis of a cell-permeable biarsenical cyanine probe for imaging tagged cytosolic bacterial proteins. Bioconjug Chem 2013; 24:251-9. [PMID: 23330683 DOI: 10.1021/bc300619m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
To optimize cellular delivery and specific labeling of tagged cytosolic proteins by biarsenical fluorescent probes built around a cyanine dye (Cy3) scaffold, we have systematically varied the polarity of the N-alkyl chain (i.e., 4-5 methylene groups appended by a sulfonate or methoxy ester moiety) and arsenic capping reagent (ethanedithiol versus benzenedithiol). Optimal live-cell labeling and visualization of tagged cytosolic proteins is reported using an ethanedithiol capping reagent with the uncharged methoxy ester functionalized N-alkyl chains. These measurements demonstrate the general utility of this new class of photostable and highly fluorescent biarsenical probes based on the cyanine dye scaffold for in vivo labeling of tagged cellular proteins for live cell imaging measurements of protein dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Fu
- Biological Sciences Division, Fundamental Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA
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23
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Patra M, Gasser G. Organometallic Compounds: An Opportunity for Chemical Biology? Chembiochem 2012; 13:1232-52. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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24
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Tsytlonok M, Itzhaki LS. Using FlAsH To Probe Conformational Changes in a Large HEAT Repeat Protein. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1199-205. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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25
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Davis OB, Bishop AC. Specific inhibition of sensitized protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) with a biarsenical probe. Bioconjug Chem 2012; 23:272-8. [PMID: 22263876 DOI: 10.1021/bc200562y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is a key regulator of the insulin-receptor and leptin-receptor signaling pathways, and it has therefore emerged as a critical antitype-II-diabetes and antiobesity drug target. Toward the goal of generating a covalent modulator of PTP1B activity that can be used for investigating its roles in cell signaling and disease progression, we report that the biarsenical probe FlAsH-EDT(2) can be used to inhibit PTP1B variants that contain cysteine point mutations in a key catalytic loop of the enzyme. The site-specific cysteine mutations have little effect on the catalytic activity of the enzyme in the absence of FlAsH-EDT(2). Upon addition of FlAsH-EDT(2), however, the activity of the engineered PTP1B is strongly inhibited, as assayed with either small-molecule or phosphorylated-peptide PTP substrates. We show that the cysteine-rich PTP1B variants can be targeted with the biarsenical probe in either whole-cell lysates or intact cells. Together, our data provide an example of a biarsenical probe controlling the activity of a protein that does not contain the canonical tetra-cysteine biarsenical-labeling sequence CCXXCC. The targeting of "incomplete" cysteine-rich motifs could provide a general means for controlling protein activity by targeting biarsenical compounds to catalytically important loops in conserved protein domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver B Davis
- Amherst College, Department of Chemistry, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002, USA
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26
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Stafforst T. A FlAsH Reporter for Protein-Dimerization Triggers. Chembiochem 2012; 13:505-7. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201100787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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27
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Yano Y, Kawano K, Omae K, Matsuzaki K. Coiled-coil tag-probe labeling methods for live-cell imaging of membrane receptors. Methods Enzymol 2012; 504:355-70. [PMID: 22264544 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-391857-4.00018-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
Tag-probe labeling methods have advantages over conventional fusion with fluorescent proteins in terms of smaller labels, surface specificity, availability of pulse labeling, and ease of multicolor labeling. With this method, the gene of the target protein is fused with a short tag sequence, expressed in cells, and the protein is labeled with exogenous fluorescent probes that specifically bind to the tag. Various labeling principles, such as protein-ligand interaction, peptide-peptide interaction, peptide-metal interaction, and enzymatic reactions, have been applied to the tag-probe labeling of membrane receptors. We describe our coiled-coil tag-probe method in detail, including the design and synthesis of the tag and probe, labeling procedures, and observations by confocal microscopy. Applications to the analysis of receptor internalization and oligomerization are also introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiaki Yano
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
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28
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Scheck RA, Schepartz A. Surveying protein structure and function using bis-arsenical small molecules. Acc Chem Res 2011; 44:654-65. [PMID: 21766813 DOI: 10.1021/ar2001028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Exploration across the fields of biology, chemical biology, and medicine has led to an increasingly complex, albeit incomplete, view of the interactions that drive life's processes. The ability to monitor and track the movement, activity, and interactions of biomolecules in living cells is an essential part of this investigation. In our laboratory, we have endeavored to develop tools that are capable not only of monitoring protein localization but also reporting on protein structure and function. Central to our efforts is a new strategy, bipartite tetracysteine display, that relies on the specific and high-affinity interaction between a fluorogenic, bis-arsenical small molecule and a unique protein sequence, conformation, or assembly. In 1998, a small-molecule analogue of fluorescein with two arsenic atoms, FlAsH, was shown by Tsien and coworkers to fluoresce upon binding to a linear amino acid sequence, Cys-Cys-Arg-Glu-Cys-Cys. Later work demonstrated that substituting Pro-Gly for Arg-Glu optimized both binding and fluorescence yield. Our strategy of bipartite tetracysteine display emanated from the idea that it would be possible to replace the intervening Pro-Gly dipeptide in this sequence with a protein or protein partnership, provided the assembled protein fold successfully reproduced the approximate placement of the two Cys-Cys pairs. In this Account, we describe our recent progress in this area, with an emphasis on the fundamental concepts that underlie the successful use of bis-arsenicals such as FlAsH and the related ReAsH for bipartite display experiments. In particular, we highlight studies that have explored how broadly bipartite tetracysteine display can be employed and that have navigated the conformational boundary conditions favoring success. To emphasize the utility of these principles, we outline two recently reported applications of bipartite tetracysteine display. The first is a novel, encodable, selective, Src kinase sensor that lacks fluorescent proteins but possesses a fluorescent readout exceeding that of most sensors based on Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). The second is a unique method, called complex-edited electron microscopy (CE-EM), that facilitates visualization of protein-protein complexes with electron microscopy. Exciting as these applications may be, the continued development of small-molecule tools with improved utility in living cells, let alone in vivo, will demand a more nuanced understanding of the fundamental photophysics that lead to fluorogenicity, as well as creative approaches toward the synthesis and identification of new and orthogonal dye-tag pairs that can be applied facilely in tandem. We describe one example of a dye-sequence tag pair that is chemically distinct from bis-arsenical chemistry. Through further effort, we expect that that bipartite tetracysteine display will find successful use in the study of sophisticated biological questions that are essential to the fields of biochemistry and biology as well as to our progressive understanding of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A. Scheck
- Departments of Chemistry and Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
| | - Alanna Schepartz
- Departments of Chemistry and Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
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