1
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Bučko M, Kaniaková K, Hronská H, Gemeiner P, Rosenberg M. Epoxide Hydrolases: Multipotential Biocatalysts. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087334. [PMID: 37108499 PMCID: PMC10138715 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Epoxide hydrolases are attractive and industrially important biocatalysts. They can catalyze the enantioselective hydrolysis of epoxides to the corresponding diols as chiral building blocks for bioactive compounds and drugs. In this review article, we discuss the state of the art and development potential of epoxide hydrolases as biocatalysts based on the most recent approaches and techniques. The review covers new approaches to discover epoxide hydrolases using genome mining and enzyme metagenomics, as well as improving enzyme activity, enantioselectivity, enantioconvergence, and thermostability by directed evolution and a rational design. Further improvements in operational and storage stabilization, reusability, pH stabilization, and thermal stabilization by immobilization techniques are discussed in this study. New possibilities for expanding the synthetic capabilities of epoxide hydrolases by their involvement in non-natural enzyme cascade reactions are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Bučko
- Department of Glycobiotechnology, Institute of Chemistry, Center for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Katarína Kaniaková
- Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Helena Hronská
- Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Peter Gemeiner
- Department of Glycobiotechnology, Institute of Chemistry, Center for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Michal Rosenberg
- Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
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2
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Chen X, Dou Z, Luo T, Sun Z, Ma H, Xu G, Ni Y. Directed reconstruction of a novel ancestral alcohol dehydrogenase featuring shifted pH-profile, enhanced thermostability and expanded substrate spectrum. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 363:127886. [PMID: 36067899 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Ancestral enzymes are promising for industrial biotechnology due to high stability and catalytic promiscuity. An effective protocol was developed for the directed resurrection of ancestral enzymes. Employing genome mining with diaryl alcohol dehydrogenase KpADH as the probe, descendant enzymes D10 and D11 were firstly identified. Then through ancestral sequence reconstruction, A64 was resurrected with a specific activity of 4.3 U·mg-1. The optimum pH of A64 was 7.5, distinct from 5.5 of D10. The T15 50 and Tm values of A64 were 57.5 °C and 61.7 °C, significantly higher than those of the descendant counterpart. Substrate spectrum of A64 was quantitively characterized with a Shannon-Wiener index of 2.38, more expanded than D10, especially, towards bulky ketones in Group A and B. A64 also exhibited higher enantioselectivity. This study provides an effective protocol for constructing of ancestral enzymes and an efficient ancestral enzyme of industrial relevance for asymmetric synthesis of chiral alcohols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Chen
- Key laboratory of industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhe Dou
- Key laboratory of industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tianwei Luo
- Key laboratory of industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zewen Sun
- Key laboratory of industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongmin Ma
- Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education and School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Guochao Xu
- Key laboratory of industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Ye Ni
- Key laboratory of industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
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3
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Cloning of Cold-Adapted Dextranase and Preparation of High Degree Polymerization Isomaltooligosaccharide. Catalysts 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/catal12070784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal diseases are mainly caused by a decrease in the relative abundance of probiotics and an increase in the number of pathogenic bacteria due to dysbiosis of the intestinal flora. High degree polymerization isomaltooligosaccharide (IMO) can promote probiotic metabolism and proliferation. In this study, the dextranase (PsDex1711) gene of marine bacterial Pseudarthrobacter sp. RN22 was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The optimal pH and temperature of the dextranase were 6.0 and 30 °C, respectively, showing the highest stability at 20 °C. The dextran T70 could be hydrolyzed to produce IMO3, IMO4, IMO5, and IMO6 with a high degree of polymerization. The hydrolysate of 1 mg/mL could significantly promote the growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium after 12 h culture and the formation of biofilms by 58.2%. The hydrolysates could promote the proliferation of probiotics. Furthermore, the IC50 of scavenging rate of DPPH, hydroxyl radical, and superoxide anion was less than 20 mg/mL. This study provides a crucial theoretical basis for the application of dextranase such as pharmaceutical and food industries.
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4
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Soni S. Trends in lipase engineering for enhanced biocatalysis. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2022; 69:265-272. [PMID: 33438779 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Lipases, also known as triacylglycerol hydrolases (E.C.No. 3.1.1.3), are considered as leading biocatalysts in the lipid modification business. With properties like ease of availability, capability to work in heterogeneous media, stability in organic solvents, property of catalyzing at the lipid-water interface and even in nonaqueous conditions, have made them a versatile choice for applications in the food, flavor, detergent, pharmaceutical, leather, textile, cosmetic, and paper industries [1]. The increasing alertness toward sustainable technologies, lesser waste generation and solvent usage and minimization of energy input has brought light toward the production and usage of recombinant/improved lipases. For example, Novozym 435, a broadly used recombinant lipase isolated from Candida antarctica, dominates the lipase industry and has even created a supplier bias in the market. This shows that there is a desperate need for novel, low-cost lipases with better properties. For this, mining of existing extremophilic genomes seems more rewarding. But considering the diversity of industrial requirements such as types of solvents used or carrier systems employed for enzyme immobilization, tailor-designed enzymes are an unrealized pressing priority. Therefore, protein engineering strategies in collaboration with the discovery of new lipases can serve as a vital tool to obtain tailor-made enzymes with specific characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surabhi Soni
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
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5
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A Machine Learning Study on the Thermostability Prediction of (R)- ω-Selective Amine Transaminase from Aspergillus terreus. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:2593748. [PMID: 34447850 PMCID: PMC8384528 DOI: 10.1155/2021/2593748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Artificial intelligence technologies such as machine learning have been applied to protein engineering, with unique advantages in protein structure, function prediction, catalytic activity, and other issues in recent years. Screening better mutants is still a bottleneck in protein engineering. In this paper, a new sequence-activity relationship method was analyzed for its application in improving the thermal stability of Aspergillus terreus (R)-ω-selective amine transaminase. The experimental data from 6 single-point mutated enzymes were used as a learning dataset to build models and predict the thermostability of 26 mutants. Based on digital signal processing (DSP), this method digitized the amino acid sequence of proteins by fast Fourier transform (FFT) and then established the best model applying partial least squares regression (PLSR) to screen out all possible mutants, especially those with high performance. In protein engineering, the innovative sequence activity relationship (ISAR) method can make a reasonable prediction using limited experimental data and significantly reduce the experimental cost. The half-life (T1/2) of (R)-ω-transaminase was fitted with the amino acid sequence by the ISAR algorithm, resulting in an R2 of 0.8929 and a cvRMSE of 4.89. At the same time, the mutants with higher T1/2 than the existing ones were predicted, laying the groundwork for better (R)-ω-transaminase in the later stage. The ISAR algorithm is expected to provide a new technique for protein evolution and screening.
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Temperature-resistant and solvent-tolerant lipases as industrial biocatalysts: Biotechnological approaches and applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 187:127-142. [PMID: 34298046 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.07.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The development of new biocatalytic systems to replace the chemical catalysts, with suitable characteristics in terms of efficiency, stability under high temperature reactions and in the presence of organic solvents, reusability, and eco-friendliness is considered a very important step to move towards the green processes. From this basis, the use of lipase as a catalyst is highly desired for many industrial applications because it offers the reactions in which could be used, stability in harsh conditions, reusability and a greener process. Therefore, the introduction of temperature-resistant and solvent-tolerant lipases have become essential and ideal for industrial applications. Temperature-resistant and solvent-tolerant lipases have been involved in many large-scale applications including biodiesel, detergent, food, pharmaceutical, organic synthesis, biosensing, pulp and paper, textile, animal feed, cosmetics, and leather industry. So, the present review provides a comprehensive overview of the industrial use of lipase. Moreover, special interest in biotechnological and biochemical techniques for enhancing temperature-resistance and solvent-tolerance of lipases to be suitable for the industrial uses.
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7
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Directed evolution of enzymes. Emerg Top Life Sci 2020; 4:119-127. [PMID: 32893862 DOI: 10.1042/etls20200047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There are near-to-infinite combinations of possibilities for evolution to happen within nature, making it yet impossible to predict how it occurs. However, science is now able to understand the mechanisms underpinning the evolution of biological systems and can use this knowledge to experimentally mimic nature. The fundamentals of evolution have been used in vitro to improve enzymes as suitable biocatalysts for applications in a process called 'Directed Evolution of Enzymes' (DEE). It replicates nature's evolutionary steps of introducing genetic variability into enzymes, selecting the fittest variants and transmitting the genetic information for the next generation. DEE has tailored biocatalysts for applications, expanding the repertoire of enzymatic activities, besides providing experimental evidences to support mechanistic hypotheses of molecular evolution and deepen our understanding about nature. In this mini review, I discuss the basic concepts of DEE, the most used methodologies and current technical advancements, providing examples of applications and perspectives.
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8
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Khan MT, Kaushik AC, Rana QUA, Malik SI, Khan AS, Wei DQ, Sajjad W, Ahmad S, Ali S, Ameenullah, Irfan M. Characterization and synthetic biology of lipase from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain. Arch Microbiol 2020; 202:1497-1506. [PMID: 32219482 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-020-01869-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Lipases with high tolerance to temperature play a significant role in industry from food manufacturing to waste management systems. Thus, there is a need to investigate these enzymes from different geographical areas to look out for a more thermo-stable one. Characterization of lipases through experimental approaches is time consuming process and sometimes the results are ambiguous due to errors. However, integration of computational technologies is quite useful for prediction of optimized conditions. Such technologies can be applied as synthetic biology, which has many major applications in engineered biological approaches for accurate prediction of effects of different physical and chemical parameters on the system. In this study, cloning and expression of a lipase gene from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, isolated from a novel geographical region of Pakistan, in Escherichia coli DH5α cells followed by sequencing was carried out. To isolate thermostable lipase producing strains, all the samples were kept at 50 °C. Genomic DNA was isolated and signal peptide (1-32 residues) sequence was chopped (ΔSPLipase). The ΔSPLipase was amplified and expressed in Linearized p15TV-L vector. The purified lipase appeared as single band of approximately 26 kDa. Suitable conditions of factors required for maximum lipase activity such as temperature, pH, substrate, organic solvent, detergents and metal ions were predicted through synthetic biology approach and further confirmed in wet lab. The predicted suitable factors for enzyme were almost similar to those determined experimentally. The optimum enzyme activity was recorded at pH 8 and 50 °C temperature. Interestingly, the activity of enzyme was found on a number of solvents, metal ions, detergents, and surfactants. The predicted optimum values and their experimental confirmations highlights the importance of integrated synthetic biology approaches in wet lab experiments. The characterized lipase of B. amyloliquefaciens at molecular level from Pakistani strains displayed good activity on a range of factors that implies this strain to be used for application in industrial level production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Tahir Khan
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biosciences, Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.,College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, The State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Aman Chandra Kaushik
- College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, The State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qurrat Ul Ain Rana
- Department of Microbiology, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Shaukat Iqbal Malik
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biosciences, Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Anwar Sheed Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Dong-Qing Wei
- College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, The State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wasim Sajjad
- State Key Laboratory of Cryosphere Science, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shabir Ahmad
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Sarhad University of Science & Information Technology, Hayatabad Link Landi-Akhun Ahmad. Ring Road, Peshawar, 2500, Pakistan
| | - Sajid Ali
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Sarhad University of Science & Information Technology, Hayatabad Link Landi-Akhun Ahmad. Ring Road, Peshawar, 2500, Pakistan.,Provincial TB Reference Laboratory, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Ameenullah
- Department of Microbiology, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Irfan
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Sarhad University of Science & Information Technology, Hayatabad Link Landi-Akhun Ahmad. Ring Road, Peshawar, 2500, Pakistan.
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9
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Qu G, Li A, Acevedo‐Rocha CG, Sun Z, Reetz MT. Die zentrale Rolle der Methodenentwicklung in der gerichteten Evolution selektiver Enzyme. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201901491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ge Qu
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Sciences 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area Tianjin 300308 China
| | - Aitao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology College of Life Sciences Hubei University 368 Youyi Road Wuchang Wuhan 430062 China
| | | | - Zhoutong Sun
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Sciences 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area Tianjin 300308 China
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Sciences 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area Tianjin 300308 China
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1 45470 Mülheim Deutschland
- Department of Chemistry, Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4 Philipps-Universität 35032 Marburg Deutschland
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10
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Qu G, Li A, Acevedo‐Rocha CG, Sun Z, Reetz MT. The Crucial Role of Methodology Development in Directed Evolution of Selective Enzymes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:13204-13231. [PMID: 31267627 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201901491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ge Qu
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Sciences 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area Tianjin 300308 China
| | - Aitao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology College of Life Sciences Hubei University 368 Youyi Road Wuchang Wuhan 430062 China
| | | | - Zhoutong Sun
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Sciences 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area Tianjin 300308 China
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology Chinese Academy of Sciences 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area Tianjin 300308 China
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1 45470 Mülheim Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4 Philipps-University 35032 Marburg Germany
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11
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Xu H, Liang W, Ning L, Jiang Y, Yang W, Wang C, Qi F, Ma L, Du L, Fourage L, Zhou YJ, Li S. Directed Evolution of P450 Fatty Acid Decarboxylases via High‐Throughput Screening towards Improved Catalytic Activity. ChemCatChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201901347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Xu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
| | - Weinan Liang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 P. R. China
| | - Linlin Ning
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 P. R. China
| | - Yuanyuan Jiang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 P. R. China
| | - Wenxia Yang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
| | - Cong Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
| | - Feifei Qi
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
| | - Li Ma
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial TechnologyShandong University Shandong 266237 P. R. China
| | - Lei Du
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
| | | | - Yongjin J. Zhou
- Division of Biotechnology Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics (DICP)Chinese Academy of Sciences Dalian 116023 P. R. China
| | - Shengying Li
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology CAS Key Laboratory of Biofuels Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess TechnologyChinese Academy of Sciences Shandong 266101 P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial TechnologyShandong University Shandong 266237 P. R. China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and BiotechnologyQingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology Shandong 266237 P. R. China
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12
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Musil M, Stourac J, Bendl J, Brezovsky J, Prokop Z, Zendulka J, Martinek T, Bednar D, Damborsky J. FireProt: web server for automated design of thermostable proteins. Nucleic Acids Res 2019; 45:W393-W399. [PMID: 28449074 PMCID: PMC5570187 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkx285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a continuous interest in increasing proteins stability to enhance their usability in numerous biomedical and biotechnological applications. A number of in silico tools for the prediction of the effect of mutations on protein stability have been developed recently. However, only single-point mutations with a small effect on protein stability are typically predicted with the existing tools and have to be followed by laborious protein expression, purification, and characterization. Here, we present FireProt, a web server for the automated design of multiple-point thermostable mutant proteins that combines structural and evolutionary information in its calculation core. FireProt utilizes sixteen tools and three protein engineering strategies for making reliable protein designs. The server is complemented with interactive, easy-to-use interface that allows users to directly analyze and optionally modify designed thermostable mutants. FireProt is freely available at http://loschmidt.chemi.muni.cz/fireprot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milos Musil
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Stourac
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Bendl
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Brezovsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Zendulka
- Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic.,Centre of Excellence IT4Innovations, Technical University Ostrava, Ostrava
| | - Tomas Martinek
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic.,Centre of Excellence IT4Innovations, Technical University Ostrava, Ostrava
| | - David Bednar
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
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13
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Li G, Dong Y, Reetz MT. Can Machine Learning Revolutionize Directed Evolution of Selective Enzymes? Adv Synth Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201900149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Guangyue Li
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests/Key Laboratory of Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Plant Origin) for Agri-product Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Plant ProtectionChinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing 100081 People's Republic of China
| | - Yijie Dong
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests/Key Laboratory of Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Plant Origin) for Agri-product Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Plant ProtectionChinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing 100081 People's Republic of China
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr Germany
- Fachbereich Chemie der Philipps-Universität Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 35032 Marburg Germany
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14
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Sun Z, Liu Q, Qu G, Feng Y, Reetz MT. Utility of B-Factors in Protein Science: Interpreting Rigidity, Flexibility, and Internal Motion and Engineering Thermostability. Chem Rev 2019; 119:1626-1665. [PMID: 30698416 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhoutong Sun
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West Seventh Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Qian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ge Qu
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West Seventh Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Yan Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West Seventh Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
- Chemistry Department, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
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15
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Pei X, Wang J, Wu Y, Zhen X, Tang M, Wang Q, Wang A. Evidence for the participation of an extra α-helix at β-subunit surface in the thermal stability of Co-type nitrile hydratase. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:7891-7900. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9191-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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16
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Zaugg J, Gumulya Y, Bodén M, Mark AE, Malde AK. Effect of Binding on Enantioselectivity of Epoxide Hydrolase. J Chem Inf Model 2018; 58:630-640. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.7b00353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julian Zaugg
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Yosephine Gumulya
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Mikael Bodén
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alan E. Mark
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alpeshkumar K. Malde
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
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17
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Tang Z, Jin W, Sun R, Liao Y, Zhen T, Chen H, Wu Q, Gou L, Li C. Improved thermostability and enzyme activity of a recombinant phyA mutant phytase from Aspergillus niger N25 by directed evolution and site-directed mutagenesis. Enzyme Microb Technol 2018; 108:74-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2017.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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18
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Javed S, Azeem F, Hussain S, Rasul I, Siddique MH, Riaz M, Afzal M, Kouser A, Nadeem H. Bacterial lipases: A review on purification and characterization. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 132:23-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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19
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Protein Engineering and Homologous Expression of Serratia marcescens Lipase for Efficient Synthesis of a Pharmaceutically Relevant Chiral Epoxyester. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2017; 183:543-554. [PMID: 28766104 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-017-2543-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The lipase isolated from Serratia marcescens (LipA) is a useful biocatalyst for kinetic resolution of a pharmaceutically relevant epoxyester, (±)-3-(4'-methoxyphenyl) glycidic acid methyl ester [(±)-MPGM], to afford optically pure (-)-MPGM, a key intermediate for the synthesis of diltiazem hydrochloride. Two mutants, LipAL315S and LipAS271F, were identified from the combinatorial saturation mutation library of 14 amino acid residues lining the substrate-binding pocket. LipAL315S, LipAS271F, and their combination LipAL315S/S271F showed 2.6-, 2.2-, and 4.6-fold improvements in their specific activities towards para-nitrophenyl butyrate (pNPB), respectively. Among these positive mutants, LipAS271F displayed a 3.5-fold higher specific activity towards the pharmaco substrate (±)-MPGM. Kinetic study showed that the improvement in catalytic efficiency of LipAS271F against (±)-MPGM was mainly resulted from the enhanced affinity between substrate and enzyme, as indicated by the decrease of K m. Furthermore, to address the insoluble expression issue in Escherichia coli, the homologous expression of LipA gene in S. marcescens was achieved by introducing it into an expression vector pUC18, resulting in ca. 20-fold higher lipase production. The significantly improved volumeric production and specific activity of S. marcescens lipase make it very attractive as a new-generation biocatalyst for more efficient and economical manufacturing of (-)-MPGM.
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20
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Saini P, Sareen D. An Overview on the Enhancement of Enantioselectivity and Stability of Microbial Epoxide Hydrolases. Mol Biotechnol 2017; 59:98-116. [PMID: 28271340 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-017-9996-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Epoxide hydrolases (EHs; 3.3.2.x) catalyze the enantioselective ring opening of racemic epoxides to the corresponding enantiopure vicinal diols and remaining equivalent unreacted epoxides. These epoxides and diols are used for the synthesis of chiral drug intermediates. With an upsurge in the methods for identification of novel microbial EHs, a lot of EHs have been discovered and utilized for kinetic resolution of racemic epoxides. However, there is still a constraint on the account of limited EHs being successfully applied on the preparative scale for industrial biotransformations. This limitation has to be overcome before application of identified functional EHs on large scale. Many strategies such as optimizing reaction media, immobilizing EHs and laboratory-scale directed evolution of EHs have been adopted for enhancing the industrial potential of EHs. In this review, these approaches have been highlighted which can serve as a pathway for the enrichment of already identified EHs for their application on an industrial scale in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Saini
- Department of Biochemistry, Panjab University, Sector 25, BMS Block II, Chandigarh, 160014, India
| | - Dipti Sareen
- Department of Biochemistry, Panjab University, Sector 25, BMS Block II, Chandigarh, 160014, India.
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21
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Starr TN, Thornton JW. Epistasis in protein evolution. Protein Sci 2016; 25:1204-18. [PMID: 26833806 PMCID: PMC4918427 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The structure, function, and evolution of proteins depend on physical and genetic interactions among amino acids. Recent studies have used new strategies to explore the prevalence, biochemical mechanisms, and evolutionary implications of these interactions-called epistasis-within proteins. Here we describe an emerging picture of pervasive epistasis in which the physical and biological effects of mutations change over the course of evolution in a lineage-specific fashion. Epistasis can restrict the trajectories available to an evolving protein or open new paths to sequences and functions that would otherwise have been inaccessible. We describe two broad classes of epistatic interactions, which arise from different physical mechanisms and have different effects on evolutionary processes. Specific epistasis-in which one mutation influences the phenotypic effect of few other mutations-is caused by direct and indirect physical interactions between mutations, which nonadditively change the protein's physical properties, such as conformation, stability, or affinity for ligands. In contrast, nonspecific epistasis describes mutations that modify the effect of many others; these typically behave additively with respect to the physical properties of a protein but exhibit epistasis because of a nonlinear relationship between the physical properties and their biological effects, such as function or fitness. Both types of interaction are rampant, but specific epistasis has stronger effects on the rate and outcomes of evolution, because it imposes stricter constraints and modulates evolutionary potential more dramatically; it therefore makes evolution more contingent on low-probability historical events and leaves stronger marks on the sequences, structures, and functions of protein families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler N Starr
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637
| | - Joseph W Thornton
- Departments of Ecology and Evolution and Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 60637
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22
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Bednar D, Beerens K, Sebestova E, Bendl J, Khare S, Chaloupkova R, Prokop Z, Brezovsky J, Baker D, Damborsky J. FireProt: Energy- and Evolution-Based Computational Design of Thermostable Multiple-Point Mutants. PLoS Comput Biol 2015; 11:e1004556. [PMID: 26529612 PMCID: PMC4631455 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
There is great interest in increasing proteins' stability to enhance their utility as biocatalysts, therapeutics, diagnostics and nanomaterials. Directed evolution is a powerful, but experimentally strenuous approach. Computational methods offer attractive alternatives. However, due to the limited reliability of predictions and potentially antagonistic effects of substitutions, only single-point mutations are usually predicted in silico, experimentally verified and then recombined in multiple-point mutants. Thus, substantial screening is still required. Here we present FireProt, a robust computational strategy for predicting highly stable multiple-point mutants that combines energy- and evolution-based approaches with smart filtering to identify additive stabilizing mutations. FireProt's reliability and applicability was demonstrated by validating its predictions against 656 mutations from the ProTherm database. We demonstrate that thermostability of the model enzymes haloalkane dehalogenase DhaA and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane dehydrochlorinase LinA can be substantially increased (ΔTm = 24°C and 21°C) by constructing and characterizing only a handful of multiple-point mutants. FireProt can be applied to any protein for which a tertiary structure and homologous sequences are available, and will facilitate the rapid development of robust proteins for biomedical and biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bednar
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Koen Beerens
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Sebestova
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Bendl
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Sagar Khare
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Radka Chaloupkova
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
- Enantis, Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Brezovsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - David Baker
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
- Enantis, Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic
- * E-mail:
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23
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Chen A, Li Y, Nie J, McNeil B, Jeffrey L, Yang Y, Bai Z. Protein engineering of Bacillus acidopullulyticus pullulanase for enhanced thermostability using in silico data driven rational design methods. Enzyme Microb Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2015.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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24
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Verho O, Bäckvall JE. Chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolution: a powerful tool for the preparation of enantiomerically pure alcohols and amines. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:3996-4009. [PMID: 25730714 PMCID: PMC4415027 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b01031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Chemoenzymatic
dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR) constitutes a convenient
and efficient method to access enantiomerically pure alcohol and amine
derivatives. This Perspective highlights the work carried out within
this field during the past two decades and pinpoints important avenues
for future research. First, the Perspective will summarize the more
developed area of alcohol DKR, by delineating the way from the earliest
proof-of-concept protocols to the current state-of-the-art systems
that allows for the highly efficient and selective preparation of
a wide range of enantiomerically pure alcohol derivatives. Thereafter,
the Perspective will focus on the more challenging DKR of amines,
by presenting the currently available homogeneous and heterogeneous
methods and their respective limitations. In these two parts, significant
attention will be dedicated to the design of efficient racemization
methods as an important means of developing milder DKR protocols.
In the final part of the Perspective, a brief overview of the research
that has been devoted toward improving enzymes as biocatalysts is
presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Verho
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan-E Bäckvall
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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25
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Currin A, Swainston N, Day PJ, Kell DB. Synthetic biology for the directed evolution of protein biocatalysts: navigating sequence space intelligently. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44:1172-239. [PMID: 25503938 PMCID: PMC4349129 DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00351a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The amino acid sequence of a protein affects both its structure and its function. Thus, the ability to modify the sequence, and hence the structure and activity, of individual proteins in a systematic way, opens up many opportunities, both scientifically and (as we focus on here) for exploitation in biocatalysis. Modern methods of synthetic biology, whereby increasingly large sequences of DNA can be synthesised de novo, allow an unprecedented ability to engineer proteins with novel functions. However, the number of possible proteins is far too large to test individually, so we need means for navigating the 'search space' of possible protein sequences efficiently and reliably in order to find desirable activities and other properties. Enzymologists distinguish binding (Kd) and catalytic (kcat) steps. In a similar way, judicious strategies have blended design (for binding, specificity and active site modelling) with the more empirical methods of classical directed evolution (DE) for improving kcat (where natural evolution rarely seeks the highest values), especially with regard to residues distant from the active site and where the functional linkages underpinning enzyme dynamics are both unknown and hard to predict. Epistasis (where the 'best' amino acid at one site depends on that or those at others) is a notable feature of directed evolution. The aim of this review is to highlight some of the approaches that are being developed to allow us to use directed evolution to improve enzyme properties, often dramatically. We note that directed evolution differs in a number of ways from natural evolution, including in particular the available mechanisms and the likely selection pressures. Thus, we stress the opportunities afforded by techniques that enable one to map sequence to (structure and) activity in silico, as an effective means of modelling and exploring protein landscapes. Because known landscapes may be assessed and reasoned about as a whole, simultaneously, this offers opportunities for protein improvement not readily available to natural evolution on rapid timescales. Intelligent landscape navigation, informed by sequence-activity relationships and coupled to the emerging methods of synthetic biology, offers scope for the development of novel biocatalysts that are both highly active and robust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Currin
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL , UK
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
| | - Neil Swainston
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
- School of Computer Science , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL , UK
| | - Philip J. Day
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PT , UK
| | - Douglas B. Kell
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK . ; http://dbkgroup.org/; @dbkell ; Tel: +44 (0)161 306 4492
- School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Manchester M13 9PL , UK
- Centre for Synthetic Biology of Fine and Speciality Chemicals (SYNBIOCHEM) , The University of Manchester , 131, Princess St , Manchester M1 7DN , UK
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26
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Bosshart A, Hee CS, Bechtold M, Schirmer T, Panke S. Directed Divergent Evolution of a ThermostableD-Tagatose Epimerase towards Improved Activity for Two Hexose Substrates. Chembiochem 2015; 16:592-601. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201402620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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27
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DC-Analyzer-facilitated combinatorial strategy for rapid directed evolution of functional enzymes with multiple mutagenesis sites. J Biotechnol 2014; 192 Pt A:102-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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28
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Wu JP, Li M, Zhou Y, Yang LR, Xu G. Introducing a salt bridge into the lipase of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia results in a very large increase in thermal stability. Biotechnol Lett 2014; 37:403-7. [PMID: 25257598 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-014-1683-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
High thermostability of enzymes is a prerequisite for their biotechnological applications. An organic solvent-tolerant and cold-active lipase, from the Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, was unstable above 40 °C in previous studies. To increase the enzyme stability, possible hydrogen-bond networks were simulated by the introduction of a salt bridge in a highly flexible region of the protein. Compared with the wild-type lipase, a mutant lipase (G165D and F73R) showed a >900-fold improvement in half-life at 50 °C, with the optimal activity-temperature increasing from 35 to 90 °C. Therefore, the hydrogen-bond strategy is a powerful approach for improving enzyme stability through the introduction of a salt bridge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Ping Wu
- Institute of Bioengineering, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
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29
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Biocatalytic potential of lipase from Staphylococcus sp. MS1 for transesterification of jatropha oil into fatty acid methyl esters. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 30:2885-97. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-014-1715-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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30
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Conti G, Pollegioni L, Molla G, Rosini E. Strategic manipulation of an industrial biocatalyst--evolution of a cephalosporin C acylase. FEBS J 2014; 281:2443-55. [PMID: 24684708 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Semi-synthetic cephalosporins are synthesized from the 7-amino cephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) nucleus produced from the antibiotic cephalosporin C (CephC). In recent years, a single-step enzymatic process in which CephC is directly converted into 7-ACA by a cephalosporin C acylase (CA) has attracted industrial interest because of the prospects of simplifying the process and reducing costs. CAs are members of the glutaryl acylase family that specifically use CephC as their substrate; however, known natural glutaryl acylases show very low activity on the antibiotic. We previously enhanced the catalytic efficiency on CephC of a glutaryl acylase from Pseudomonas N176 (named VAC) by a protein engineering approach, and solved the structures of the VAC, thus providing insight into the substrate binding and catalytic activity of CAs. However, the properties of such enzymes are not sufficient to encourage 7-ACA manufacturers to shift to single-step enzymatic conversion of CephC. Here, we combine structural knowledge, semi-rational design, computational approaches and evolution analysis to isolate VAC variants with altered substrate specificity (i.e. with a > 11,000-fold increase in specificity constant for CephC versus glutaryl-7-amino cephalosporanic acid, compared to wild-type) and with the highest kinetic efficiency so far obtained for a CA. Indeed, the H57βS-H70βS-L154βY VAC variant shows the highest conversion of CephC into 7-ACA under conditions resembling those used at industrial level because of its high kinetic efficiency and the absence of substrate or product inhibition effects, and may be suitable for industrial application of the mono-step process for CephC conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Conti
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Scienze della Vita, Università degli studi dell'Insubria, Varese, Italy
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31
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Kaltenbach M, Tokuriki N. Dynamics and constraints of enzyme evolution. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2014; 322:468-87. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Kaltenbach
- Michael Smith Laboratories; University of British Columbia; Vancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Nobuhiko Tokuriki
- Michael Smith Laboratories; University of British Columbia; Vancouver British Columbia Canada
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32
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Jun C, Joo JC, Lee JH, Kim YH. Thermostabilization of glutamate decarboxylase B from Escherichia coli by structure-guided design of its pH-responsive N-terminal interdomain. J Biotechnol 2014; 174:22-8. [PMID: 24480573 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate decarboxylase B (GadB) from Escherichia coli is a highly active biocatalyst that can convert l-glutamate to γ-aminobutyrate (GABA), a precursor of 2-pyrrolidone (a monomer of Nylon 4). In contrast to vigorous studies of pH shifting of GadB, mesophilic GadB has not been stabilized by protein engineering. In this study, we improved the thermostability of GadB through structural optimization of its N-terminal interdomain. According to structural analysis, the N-terminal fourteen residues (1-14) of homo-hexameric GadB formed a triple-helix bundle interdomain at acidic pH and contributed to the thermostability of GadB in preliminary tests as the pH shifted from 7.6 to 4.6. GadB thermostabilization was achieved by optimization of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions at the N-terminal interdomain. A triple mutant (GadB-TM: Gln5Asp/Val6Ile/Thr7Glu) showed higher thermostability than the wild-type (GadB-WT), i.e., 7.9 and 7.7°C increases in the melting temperature (Tm) and the temperature at which 50% of the initial activity remained after 10min incubation (T50(10)), respectively. The triple mutant showed no reduction of catalytic activity in enzyme kinetics. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation at high temperature showed that reinforced interactions of the triple mutant rigidified the N-terminal interdomain compared to the wild-type, leading to GadB thermostabilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanha Jun
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Chan Joo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Heon Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Hwan Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Republic of Korea.
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33
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Hwang HT, Qi F, Yuan C, Zhao X, Ramkrishna D, Liu D, Varma A. Lipase-catalyzed process for biodiesel production: Protein engineering and lipase production. Biotechnol Bioeng 2013; 111:639-53. [PMID: 24284881 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Tae Hwang
- School of Chemical Engineering; Purdue University; 480 Stadium Mall Drive West Lafayette Indiana 47907
| | - Feng Qi
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Institute of Applied Chemistry; Tsinghua University; Beijing China
| | - Chongli Yuan
- School of Chemical Engineering; Purdue University; 480 Stadium Mall Drive West Lafayette Indiana 47907
| | - Xuebing Zhao
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Institute of Applied Chemistry; Tsinghua University; Beijing China
| | - Doraiswami Ramkrishna
- School of Chemical Engineering; Purdue University; 480 Stadium Mall Drive West Lafayette Indiana 47907
| | - Dehua Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Institute of Applied Chemistry; Tsinghua University; Beijing China
| | - Arvind Varma
- School of Chemical Engineering; Purdue University; 480 Stadium Mall Drive West Lafayette Indiana 47907
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Yu H, Huang H. Engineering proteins for thermostability through rigidifying flexible sites. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 32:308-15. [PMID: 24211474 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Engineering proteins for thermostability is an exciting and challenging field since it is critical for broadening the industrial use of recombinant proteins. Thermostability of proteins arises from the simultaneous effect of several forces such as hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bonds, salt bridges and hydrogen bonds. All of these interactions lead to decreased flexibility of polypeptide chain. Structural studies of mesophilic and thermophilic proteins showed that the latter need more rigid structures to compensate for increased thermal fluctuations. Hence flexibility can be an indicator to pinpoint weak spots for enhancing thermostability of enzymes. A strategy has been proven effective in enhancing proteins' thermostability with two steps: predict flexible sites of proteins firstly and then rigidify these sites. We refer to this approach as rigidify flexible sites (RFS) and give an overview of such a method through summarizing the methods to predict flexibility of a protein, the methods to rigidify residues with high flexibility and successful cases regarding enhancing thermostability of proteins using RFS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Yu
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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Improvement of biocatalysts for industrial and environmental purposes by saturation mutagenesis. Biomolecules 2013; 3:778-811. [PMID: 24970191 PMCID: PMC4030971 DOI: 10.3390/biom3040778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 09/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Laboratory evolution techniques are becoming increasingly widespread among protein engineers for the development of novel and designed biocatalysts. The palette of different approaches ranges from complete randomized strategies to rational and structure-guided mutagenesis, with a wide variety of costs, impacts, drawbacks and relevance to biotechnology. A technique that convincingly compromises the extremes of fully randomized vs. rational mutagenesis, with a high benefit/cost ratio, is saturation mutagenesis. Here we will present and discuss this approach in its many facets, also tackling the issue of randomization, statistical evaluation of library completeness and throughput efficiency of screening methods. Successful recent applications covering different classes of enzymes will be presented referring to the literature and to research lines pursued in our group. The focus is put on saturation mutagenesis as a tool for designing novel biocatalysts specifically relevant to production of fine chemicals for improving bulk enzymes for industry and engineering technical enzymes involved in treatment of waste, detoxification and production of clean energy from renewable sources.
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Reetz MT. Biocatalysis in organic chemistry and biotechnology: past, present, and future. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:12480-96. [PMID: 23930719 DOI: 10.1021/ja405051f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 522] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes as catalysts in synthetic organic chemistry gained importance in the latter half of the 20th century, but nevertheless suffered from two major limitations. First, many enzymes were not accessible in large enough quantities for practical applications. The advent of recombinant DNA technology changed this dramatically in the late 1970s. Second, many enzymes showed a narrow substrate scope, often poor stereo- and/or regioselectivity and/or insufficient stability under operating conditions. With the development of directed evolution beginning in the 1990s and continuing to the present day, all of these problems can be addressed and generally solved. The present Perspective focuses on these and other developments which have popularized enzymes as part of the toolkit of synthetic organic chemists and biotechnologists. Included is a discussion of the scope and limitation of cascade reactions using enzyme mixtures in vitro and of metabolic engineering of pathways in cells as factories for the production of simple compounds such as biofuels and complex natural products. Future trends and problems are also highlighted, as is the discussion concerning biocatalysis versus nonbiological catalysis in synthetic organic chemistry. This Perspective does not constitute a comprehensive review, and therefore the author apologizes to those researchers whose work is not specifically treated here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred T Reetz
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein Strasse, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
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Thermostabilization of Candida antarctica lipase B by double immobilization: Adsorption on a macroporous polyacrylate carrier and R1 silaffin-mediated biosilicification. Process Biochem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2013.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Improved thermostability of a Bacillus subtilis esterase by domain exchange. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2013; 98:1719-26. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-5053-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 06/08/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Wijma HJ, Floor RJ, Janssen DB. Structure- and sequence-analysis inspired engineering of proteins for enhanced thermostability. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2013; 23:588-94. [PMID: 23683520 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2013.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Protein engineering strategies for increasing stability can be improved by replacing random mutagenesis and high-throughput screening by approaches that include bioinformatics and computational design. Mutations can be focused on regions in the structure that are most flexible and involved in the early steps of thermal unfolding. Sequence analysis can often predict the position and nature of stabilizing mutations, and may allow the reconstruction of thermostable ancestral sequences. Various computational tools make it possible to design stabilizing features, such as hydrophobic clusters and surface charges. Different methods for designing chimeric enzymes can also support the engineering of more stable proteins without the need of high-throughput screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hein J Wijma
- Department of Biochemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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Lauchli R, Rabe KS, Kalbarczyk KZ, Tata A, Heel T, Kitto RZ, Arnold FH. High-throughput screening for terpene-synthase-cyclization activity and directed evolution of a terpene synthase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:5571-4. [PMID: 23532864 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201301362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Lauchli
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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Lauchli R, Rabe KS, Kalbarczyk KZ, Tata A, Heel T, Kitto RZ, Arnold FH. High-Throughput Screening for Terpene-Synthase-Cyclization Activity and Directed Evolution of a Terpene Synthase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201301362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Cesarini S, Bofill C, Pastor FJ, Reetz MT, Diaz P. A thermostable variant of P. aeruginosa cold-adapted LipC obtained by rational design and saturation mutagenesis. Process Biochem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2012.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Bassegoda A, Cesarini S, Diaz P. Lipase improvement: goals and strategies. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2012; 2:e201209005. [PMID: 24688646 PMCID: PMC3962121 DOI: 10.5936/csbj.201209005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arnau Bassegoda
- Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona. Av. Diagonal 643, 08028-Barcelona. Spain
| | - Silvia Cesarini
- Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona. Av. Diagonal 643, 08028-Barcelona. Spain
| | - Pilar Diaz
- Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona. Av. Diagonal 643, 08028-Barcelona. Spain
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New tools for exploring "old friends-microbial lipases". Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2012; 168:1163-96. [PMID: 22956276 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-012-9849-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2012] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Fat-splitting enzymes (lipases), due to their natural, industrial, and medical relevance, attract enough attention as fats do in our lives. Starting from the paper that we write, cheese and oil that we consume, detergent that we use to remove oil stains, biodiesel that we use as transportation fuel, to the enantiopure drugs that we use in therapeutics, all these applications are facilitated directly or indirectly by lipases. Due to their uniqueness, versatility, and dexterity, decades of research work have been carried out on microbial lipases. The hunt for novel lipases and strategies to improve them continues unabated as evidenced by new families of microbial lipases that are still being discovered mostly by metagenomic approaches. A separate database for true lipases termed LIPABASE has been created recently which provides taxonomic, structural, biochemical information about true lipases from various species. The present review attempts to summarize new approaches that are employed in various aspects of microbial lipase research, viz., screening, isolation, production, purification, improvement by protein engineering, and surface display. Finally, novel applications facilitated by microbial lipases are also presented.
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Reetz MT. Laboratory evolution of stereoselective enzymes as a means to expand the toolbox of organic chemists. Tetrahedron 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2012.05.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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48
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Goldsmith M, Tawfik DS. Directed enzyme evolution: beyond the low-hanging fruit. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2012; 22:406-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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49
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Gumulya Y, Sanchis J, Reetz MT. Many Pathways in Laboratory Evolution Can Lead to Improved Enzymes: How to Escape from Local Minima. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1060-6. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201100784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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