Optogenetics: A Primer for Chemists

Photoresponsive hydrogel friction

Photoresponsive hydrogels are an emerging class of stimuli-responsive materials that exhibit changes in physical or chemical properties in response to light. Previous investigations have leveraged photothermal mechanisms to achieve reversible changes in hydrogel friction, although few have focused on photochemical means. To date, the tribological properties of photoswitchable hydrogels (e.g., friction and lubrication) have remained underexplored. In this work, we incorporated photoresponsive methoxy-spiropyran-methacrylate monomers (methoxy-SP-MA) into a hydrogel network to form a copolymerized system of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid-co-methoxy-spiropyran-methacrylate) (p(NIPAAm-co-AMPS-co-SP)). We demonstrated repeatable photoresponsive changes to swelling, friction, and stiffness over three light cycles. Our findings suggest that volume changes driven by the decreased hydrophilicity of the methoxy-SP-MA upon light irradiation are responsible for differences in the mechanical and tribological properties of our photoresponsive hydrogels. Our results could inform future designs of photoswitchable hydrogels for applications ranging from biomedical applications to soft robotics.

Expanding the Genetic Code of Xenopus laevis Embryos

The incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins through genetic code expansion has been successfully adapted to African claw-toed frog embryos. Six unique unnatural amino acids are incorporated site-specifically into proteins and demonstrate robust and reliable protein expression. Of these amino acids, several are caged analogues that can be used to establish conditional control over enzymatic activity. Using light or small molecule triggers, we exhibit activation and tunability of protein functions in live embryos. This approach was then applied to optical control over the activity of a RASopathy mutant of NRAS, taking advantage of generating explant cultures from Xenopus. Taken together, genetic code expansion is a robust approach in the Xenopus model to incorporate novel chemical functionalities into proteins of interest to study their function and role in a complex biological setting.

Isoform-specific optical activation of kinase function reveals p38-ERK signaling crosstalk

Evolution has diversified the mammalian proteome by the generation of protein isoforms that originate from identical genes, e.g., through alternative gene splicing or post-translational modifications, or very similar genes found in gene families. Protein isoforms can have either overlapping or unique functions and traditional chemical, biochemical, and genetic techniques are often limited in their ability to differentiate between isoforms due to their high similarity. This is particularly true in the context of highly dynamic cell signaling cascades, which often require acute spatiotemporal perturbation to assess mechanistic details. To that end, we describe a method for the selective perturbation of the individual protein isoforms of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38. The genetic installation of a photocaging group at a conserved active site lysine enables the precise light-controlled initiation of kinase signaling, followed by investigation of downstream events. Through optical control, we have identified a novel point of crosstalk between two major signaling cascades: the p38/MAPK pathway and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/MAPK pathway. Specifically, using the photoactivated p38 isoforms, we have found the p38γ and p38δ variants to be positive regulators of the ERK signaling cascade, while confirming the p38α and p38β variants as negative regulators.

Genetic Encoding of Arylazopyrazole Phenylalanine for Optical Control of Translation

An arylazopyrazole was explored for its use as an enhanced photoswitchable amino acid in genetic code expansion. This new unnatural amino acid was successfully incorporated into proteins in both bacterial and mammalian cells. While photocontrol of translation required pulsed irradiations, complete selectivity for the trans-configuration by the pyrrolysyl tRNA synthetase was observed, demonstrating expression of a gene of interest selectively controlled via light exposure.

Dual Behavior Regulation: Tether-Free Deep-Brain Stimulation by Photothermal and Upconversion Hybrid Nanoparticles

Optogenetics has been plagued by invasive brain implants and thermal effects during photo-modulation. Here, two upconversion hybrid nanoparticles modified with photothermal agents, named PT-UCNP-B/G, which can modulate neuronal activities via photostimulation and thermo-stimulation under near-infrared laser irradiation at 980 nm and 808 nm, respectively, are demonstrated. PT-UCNP-B/G emits visible light (410-500 nm or 500-570 nm) through the upconversion process at 980 nm, while they exhibit efficient photothermal effect at 808 nm with no visible emission and tissue damage. Intriguingly, PT-UCNP-B significantly activates extracellular sodium currents in neuro2a cells expressing light-gated channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) ion channels under 980-nm irradiation, and inhibits potassium currents in human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing the voltage-gated potassium channels (KCNQ1) under 808-nm irradiation in vitro. Furthermore, deep-brain bidirectional modulation of feeding behavior is achieved under tether-free 980 or 808-nm illumination (0.8 W cm^-2 ) in mice stereotactically injected with PT-UCNP-B in the ChR2-expressing lateral hypothalamus region. Thus, PT-UCNP-B/G creates new possibility of utilizing both light and heat to modulate neural activities and provides a viable strategy to overcome the limits of optogenetics.

Assessment of Photoreleasable Linkers and Light-Capturing Antennas on a Photoresponsive Cobalamin Scaffold

Cobalamin has shown promise as a light-sensitive drug delivery platform owing to its ease of modification and the high quantum yields for drug photorelease. However, studies to date on the general photochemistry of alkyl cobalamins have primarily focused on methyl and adenosyl-substituted derivatives, the natural cofactors present in various enzymatic species. We describe the synthesis and photolytic behavior of cobalamin conjugates comprised of different combinations of fluorophores and β-axial ligands. In general, cobalamin conjugates containing β-axial alkyl substituents undergo efficient photolysis under aqueous conditions, with quantum yields up to >40%. However, substituents that are large and hydrophobic, or unable to readily support the presumed radical intermediate, suffer less efficient photolysis (<15%) than smaller, water-soluble, analogs. By contrast, quantum yields improve by 2-fold in DMF for cobalamins containing large hydrophobic β-axial substituents. This suggests that drug release from carriers comprised of membranous compartments, such as liposomes, may be significantly more efficient than the corresponding photorelease in an aqueous environment. Finally, we explored the impact of fluorophores on the photolysis of alkyl cobalamins under tissue-mimetic conditions. Cobalamins substituted with efficient photon-capturing fluorophores display up to 4-fold enhancements in photolysis relative to unsubstituted derivatives. In summary, we have shown that the photosensitivity of alkyl cobalamin conjugates can be tuned by altering the Co-appended alkyl moiety, modulating the polarity of the environment (solvent), and installing photon-capturing fluorophores onto the cobalamin framework.

Chemical-Biology-derived in vivo Sensors: Past, Present, and Future

To understand the complex biochemistry and biophysics of biological systems, one needs to be able to monitor local concentrations of molecules, physical properties of macromolecular assemblies and activation status of signaling pathways, in real time, within single cells, and at high spatio-temporal resolution. Here we look at the tools that have been / are being / need to be provided by chemical biology to address these challenges. In particular, we highlight the utility of molecular probes that help to better measure mechanical forces and flux through key signalling pathways. Chemical biology can be used to both build biosensors to visualize, but also actuators to perturb biological processes. An emergent theme is the possibility to multiplex measurements of multiple cellular processes. Advances in microscopy automation now allow us to acquire datasets for 1000's of cells. This produces high dimensional datasets that require computer vision approaches that automate image analysis. The high dimensionality of these datasets are often not immediately accessible to human intuition, and, similarly to 'omics technologies, require statistical approaches for their exploitation. The field of biosensor imaging is therefore experiencing a multidisciplinary transition that will enable it to realize its full potential as a tool to provide a deeper appreciation of cell physiology.

Optical Control of Phosphoinositide Binding: Rapid Activation of Subcellular Protein Translocation and Cell Signaling

Cells utilize protein translocation to specific compartments for spatial and temporal regulation of protein activity, in particular in the context of signaling processes. Protein recognition and binding to various subcellular membranes is mediated by a network of phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) species bearing one or multiple phosphate moieties on the polar inositol head. Here, we report a new, highly efficient method for optical control of protein localization through the site-specific incorporation of a photocaged amino acid for steric and electrostatic disruption of inositol phosphate recognition and binding. We demonstrate general applicability of the approach by photocaging two unrelated proteins, sorting nexin 3 (SNX3) and the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of phospholipase C delta 1 (PLCδ1), with two distinct PIP binding domains and distinct subcellular localizations. We have established the applicability of this methodology through its application to Son of Sevenless 2 (SOS2), a signaling protein involved in the extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MAPK) cascade. Upon fusing the photocaged plasma membrane-targeted construct PH-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), to the catalytic domain of SOS2, we demonstrated light-induced membrane localization of the construct resulting in fast and extensive activation of the ERK signaling pathway in NIH 3T3 cells. This approach can be readily extended to other proteins, with minimal protein engineering, and provides a method for acute optical control of protein translocation with rapid and complete activation.

Optogenetics in bacteria - applications and opportunities

Optogenetics holds the promise of controlling biological processes with superb temporal and spatial resolution at minimal perturbation. Although many of the light-reactive proteins used in optogenetic systems are derived from prokaryotes, applications were largely limited to eukaryotes for a long time. In recent years, however, an increasing number of microbiologists use optogenetics as a powerful new tool to study and control key aspects of bacterial biology in a fast and often reversible manner. After a brief discussion of optogenetic principles, this review provides an overview of the rapidly growing number of optogenetic applications in bacteria, with a particular focus on studies venturing beyond transcriptional control. To guide future experiments, we highlight helpful tools, provide considerations for successful application of optogenetics in bacterial systems, and identify particular opportunities and challenges that arise when applying these approaches in bacteria.

Optical control of targeted protein degradation

Molecular glues and proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) have emerged as small-molecule tools that selectively induce the degradation of a chosen protein and have shown therapeutic promise. Recently, several approaches employing light as an additional stimulus to control induced protein degradation have been reported. Here, we analyze the principles guiding the design of such systems, provide a survey of the literature published to date, and discuss opportunities for further development. Light-responsive degraders enable the precise temporal and spatial control of protein levels, making them useful research tools but also potential candidates for human precision medicine.

Synthetic Biological Approaches for Optogenetics and Tools for Transcriptional Light-Control in Bacteria

Light has become established as a tool not only to visualize and investigate but also to steer biological systems. This review starts by discussing the unique features that make light such an effective control input in biology. It then gives an overview of how light-control came to progress, starting with photoactivatable compounds and leading up to current genetic implementations using optogenetic approaches. The review then zooms in on optogenetics, focusing on photosensitive proteins, which form the basis for optogenetic engineering using synthetic biological approaches. As the regulation of transcription provides a highly versatile means for steering diverse biological functions, the focus of this review then shifts to transcriptional light regulators, which are presented in the biotechnologically highly relevant model organism Escherichia coli.

Taking phototherapeutics from concept to clinical launch

More than four decades have passed since the first example of a light-activated (caged) compound was described. In the intervening years, a large number of light-responsive derivatives have been reported, several of which have found utility under a variety of in vitro conditions using cells and tissues. Light-triggered bioactivity furnishes spatial and temporal control, and offers the possibility of precision dosing and orthogonal communication with different biomolecules. These inherent attributes of light have been advocated as advantageous for the delivery and/or activation of drugs at diseased sites for a variety of indications. However, the tissue penetrance of light is profoundly wavelength-dependent. Only recently have phototherapeutics that are photoresponsive in the optical window of tissue (600-900 nm) been described. This Review highlights these recent discoveries, along with their limitations and clinical opportunities. In addition, we describe preliminary in vivo studies of prospective phototherapeutics, with an emphasis on the path that remains to be navigated in order to translate light-activated drugs into clinically useful therapeutics. Finally, the unique attributes of phototherapeutics is highlighted by discussing several potential disease applications.

Structural and spectroscopic characterization of photoactive yellow protein and photoswitchable fluorescent protein constructs containing heavy atoms

Photo-induced structural rearrangements of chromophore-containing proteins are essential for various light-dependent signaling pathways and optogenetic applications. Ultrafast structural and spectroscopic methods have offered insights into these structural rearrangements across many timescales. However, questions still remain about exact mechanistic details, especially regarding photoisomerization of the chromophore within these proteins femtoseconds to picoseconds after photoexcitation. Instrumentation advancements for time-resolved crystallography and ultrafast electron diffraction provide a promising opportunity to study these reactions, but achieving enough signal-to-noise is a constant challenge. Here we present four new photoactive yellow protein constructs and one new fluorescent protein construct that contain heavy atoms either within or around the chromophore and can be expressed with high yields. Structural characterization of these constructs, most at atomic resolution, show minimal perturbation caused by the heavy atoms compared to wild-type structures. Spectroscopic studies report the effects of the heavy atom identity and location on the chromophore's photophysical properties. None of the substitutions prevent photoisomerization, although certain rates within the photocycle may be affected. Overall, these new proteins containing heavy atoms are ideal samples for state-of-theart time-resolved crystallography and electron diffraction experiments to elucidate crucial mechanistic information of photoisomerization.

Spatiotemporal Control of CRISPR/Cas9 Function in Cells and Zebrafish using Light-Activated Guide RNA

We developed a new method for the conditional regulation of CRISPR/Cas9 activity in mammalian cells and zebrafish embryos using photochemically activated, caged guide RNAs (gRNAs). Caged gRNAs are generated by substituting four nucleobases evenly distributed throughout the 5'-protospacer region with caged nucleobases during synthesis. Caging confers complete suppression of gRNA:dsDNA-target hybridization and rapid restoration of CRISPR/Cas9 function upon optical activation. This tool offers simplicity and complete programmability in design, high spatiotemporal specificity in cells and zebrafish embryos, excellent off-to-on switching, and stability by preserving the ability to form Cas9:gRNA ribonucleoprotein complexes. Caged gRNAs are novel tools for the conditional control of gene editing, thereby enabling the investigation of spatiotemporally complex physiological events by obtaining a better understanding of dynamic gene regulation.

Enzyme Allostery: Now Controllable by Light

In this issue of Cell Chemical Biology, the Sterner lab reports the application of photoswitchable unnatural amino acids in controlling protein allostery in the enzyme complex imidazole glycerol phosphate synthase (Kneuttinger et al., 2019). Remarkable switching in enzyme activity was achieved upon photoisomerization of an azobenzene amino acid.

Electrostatic control of photoisomerization pathways in proteins

Rotation around a specific bond after photoexcitation is central to vision and emerging opportunities in optogenetics, super-resolution microscopy, and photoactive molecular devices. Competing roles for steric and electrostatic effects that govern bond-specific photoisomerization have been widely discussed, the latter originating from chromophore charge transfer upon excitation. We systematically altered the electrostatic properties of the green fluorescent protein chromophore in a photoswitchable variant, Dronpa2, using amber suppression to introduce electron-donating and electron-withdrawing groups to the phenolate ring. Through analysis of the absorption (color), fluorescence quantum yield, and energy barriers to ground- and excited-state isomerization, we evaluate the contributions of sterics and electrostatics quantitatively and demonstrate how electrostatic effects bias the pathway of chromophore photoisomerization, leading to a generalized framework to guide protein design.

Structural Basis of Design and Engineering for Advanced Plant Optogenetics

In optogenetics, light-sensitive proteins are specifically expressed in target cells and light is used to precisely control the activity of these proteins at high spatiotemporal resolution. Optogenetics initially used naturally occurring photoreceptors to control neural circuits, but has expanded to include carefully designed and engineered photoreceptors. Several optogenetic constructs are based on plant photoreceptors, but their application to plant systems has been limited. Here, we present perspectives on the development of plant optogenetics, considering different levels of design complexity. We discuss how general principles of light-driven signal transduction can be coupled with approaches for engineering protein folding to develop novel optogenetic tools. Finally, we explore how the use of computation, networks, circular permutation, and directed evolution could enrich optogenetics.

A Computational Protocol for Regulating Protein Binding Reactions with a Light-Sensitive Protein Dimer

Light-sensitive proteins can be used to perturb signaling networks in living cells and animals with high spatiotemporal resolution. We recently engineered a protein heterodimer that dissociates when irradiated with blue light and demonstrated that by fusing each half of the dimer to termini of a protein that it is possible to selectively block binding surfaces on the protein when in the dark. On activation with light, the dimer dissociates and exposes the binding surface, allowing the protein to bind its partner. Critical to the success of this system, called Z-lock, is that the linkers connecting the dimer components to the termini are engineered so that the dimer forms over the appropriate binding surface. Here, we develop and test a protocol in the Rosetta molecular modeling program for designing linkers for Z-lock. We show that the protocol can predict the most effective linker sets for three different light-sensitive switches, including a newly designed switch that binds the Rho-family GTPase Cdc42 on stimulation with blue light. This protocol represents a generalized computational approach to placing a wide variety of proteins under optogenetic control with Z-lock.

On Command Drug Delivery via Cell-Conveyed Phototherapeutics

Herein, the use of red blood cells (RBCs) as carriers of cytoplasmically interned phototherapeutic agents is described. Photolysis promotes drug release from the RBC carrier thereby providing the means to target specific diseased sites. This strategy is realized with a vitamin B12-taxane conjugate (B12-TAX), in which the drug is linked to the vitamin via a photolabile CoC bond. The conjugate is introduced into mouse RBCs (mRBCs) via a pore-forming/pore-resealing procedure and is cytoplasmically retained due to the membrane impermeability of B12. Photolysis separates the taxane from the B12 cytoplasmic anchor, enabling the drug to exit the RBC carrier. A covalently appended Cy5 antenna sensitizes the conjugate (Cy5-B12-TAX) to far red light, thereby circumventing the intense light absorbing properties of hemoglobin (350-600 nm). Microscopy and imaging flow cytometry reveal that Cy5-B12-TAX-loaded mRBCs act as drug carriers. Furthermore, intravital imaging of mice furnish a real time assessment of circulating phototherapeutic-loaded mRBCs as well as evidence of the targeted photorelease of the taxane upon photolysis. Histopathology confirms that drug release occurs in a well resolved spatiotemporal fashion. Finally, acoustic angiography is employed to assess the consequences of taxane release at the tumor site in Nu/Nu-tumor-bearing mice.

Compartmentalized cAMP Generation by Engineered Photoactivated Adenylyl Cyclases

Because small-molecule activators of adenylyl cyclases (AC) affect ACs cell-wide, it is challenging to explore the signaling consequences of AC activity emanating from specific intracellular compartments. We explored this issue using a series of engineered, optogenetic, spatially restricted, photoactivable adenylyl cyclases (PACs) positioned at the plasma membrane (PM), the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), and the nucleus (Nu). The biochemical consequences of brief photostimulation of PAC is primarily limited to the intracellular site occupied by the PAC. By contrast, sustained photostimulation results in distal cAMP signaling. Prolonged cAMP generation at the OMM profoundly stimulates nuclear protein kinase (PKA) activity. We have found that phosphodiesterases 3 (OMM and PM) and 4 (PM) modulate proximal (local) cAMP-triggered activity, whereas phosphodiesterase 4 regulates distal cAMP activity as well as the migration of PKA's catalytic subunit into the nucleus.

Development of photolabile protecting groups and their application to the optochemical control of cell signaling

Many biological processes are naturally regulated with spatiotemporal control. In order to perturb and investigate them, optochemical tools have been developed that convey similar spatiotemporal precision. Pivotal to optochemical probes are photolabile protecting groups, so called caging groups, and recent developments have enabled new applications to cellular processes, including cell signaling. This review focuses on the advances made in the field of caging groups and their application in cell signaling through caged molecules such as neurotransmitters, lipids, secondary messengers, and proteins.

Photocontrollable Proteins for Optoacoustic Imaging

Photocontrollable proteins revolutionized life-science imaging due to their contribution to subdiffraction-resolution optical microscopy. They might have yet another lasting impact on photo- or optoacoustic imaging (OA). OA combines optical contrast with ultrasound detection enabling high-resolution real-time in vivo imaging well-beyond the typical penetration depth of optical methods. While OA already showed numerous applications relying on endogenous contrast from blood hemoglobin or lipids, its application in the life-science was limited by a lack of labels overcoming the strong signal from the aforementioned endogenous absorbers. Here, a number of recent studies showed that photocontrollable proteins provide the means to overcome this barrier eventually enabling OA to image small cell numbers in a complete organism in vivo. In this Feature article, we introduce the key photocontrollable proteins, explain the basic concepts, and highlight achievements that have been already made.

Design, construction, and validation of optogenetic proteins

Cellular optogenetics employs light-regulated, genetically encoded protein actuators to perturb cellular signaling with unprecedented spatial and temporal control. Here, we present a potentially generalized approach for transforming a given protein of interest (POI) into an optogenetic species. We describe the rational and methods by which we developed three different optogenetic POIs utilizing the Cry2-Cib photodimerizing pair. The process pipeline is highlighted by (1) developing a low level, constitutively active POI that is independent of endogenous regulation, (2) fusion of the mutant protein of interest to an optogenetic photodimerizing system, and (3) light-mediated recruitment of the light-responsive POI to specific subcellular regions.

Optogenetic perturbation of the biochemical pathways that control cell behavior

Optogenetic tools provide a level of spatial and temporal resolution needed to shed new light on dynamic intercellular processes. In this chapter we outline specific protocols for applying these tools to cell motility (optogenetic cofilin), apoptosis [optogenetic Bcl-like protein 4 (Bax)], and protein kinase-mediated signaling pathways [optogenetic cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA)]. The activity of these optogenetic species is regulated by the light-mediated dimerization of a cryptochrome/Cib protein pair, which controls the intracellular positioning of the protein of interest. The light induced recruitment of cofilin to the cytoskeleton is utilized for directed migration studies and filopodial dynamics. Light-triggered migration of Bax to the outer mitochondrial membrane induces cellular collapse and eventual apoptosis. Finally, the light-mediated movement of PKA to specific intracellular compartments offers the means to assess the consequences of PKA activity in a site-specific fashion via phosphoproteomic analysis.

Designing azobenzene-based tools for controlling neurotransmission

Chemical and electrical signaling at the synapse is a dynamic process that is crucial to neurotransmission and pathology. Traditional pharmacotherapy has found countless applications in both academic labs and the clinic; however, diffusible drugs lack spatial and temporal precision when employed in heterogeneous tissues such as the brain. In the field of photopharmacology, chemical attachment of a synthetic photoswitch to a bioactive ligand allows cellular signaling to be controlled with light. Azobenzenes have remained the go-to photoswitch for biological applications due to their tunable photophysical properties, and can be leveraged to achieve reversible optical control of numerous receptors and ion channels. Here, we discuss the most recent advances in photopharmacology which will improve the use of azobenzene-based probes for neuroscience applications.

Light-control of the ultra-fast Gp41-1 split intein with preserved stability of a genetically encoded photo-caged amino acid in bacterial cells

Inteins change the structure and function of their host protein in a unique way and the Gp41-1 split intein is the fastest protein trans-splicing intein known to date. To design a photo-activatable variant, we have incorporated ortho-nitrobenzyl-tyrosine (ONBY) at the position of a structurally conserved phenylalanine in the Gp41-1-N fragment. Using irradiation at 365 nm, the splicing reaction was triggered with virtually unchanged rates. The partial cellular reduction of the nitro group in ONBY, previously observed during bacterial protein expression for several photo-caged amino acids, was overcome by periplasmatic expression and by using an E. coli K12(DE3) strain instead of BL21(DE3). Together, our findings provide new tools for the artificial photo-control of proteins.