Photo-biocatalytic Cascades: Combining Chemical and Enzymatic Transformations Fueled by Light

Light-Driven Hybrid Nanoreactor Harnessing the Synergy of Carboxysomes and Organic Frameworks for Efficient Hydrogen Production

Synthetic photobiocatalysts are promising catalysts for valuable chemical transformations by harnessing solar energy inspired by natural photosynthesis. However, the synergistic integration of all of the components for efficient light harvesting, cascade electron transfer, and efficient biocatalytic reactions presents a formidable challenge. In particular, replicating intricate multiscale hierarchical assembly and functional segregation involved in natural photosystems, such as photosystems I and II, remains particularly demanding within artificial structures. Here, we report the bottom-up construction of a visible-light-driven chemical-biological hybrid nanoreactor with augmented photocatalytic efficiency by anchoring an α-carboxysome shell encasing [FeFe]-hydrogenases (H-S) on the surface of a hydrogen-bonded organic molecular crystal, a microporous α-polymorph of 1,3,6,8-tetra(4'-carboxyphenyl)pyrene (TBAP-α). The self-association of this chemical-biological hybrid system is facilitated by hydrogen bonds, as revealed by molecular dynamics simulations. Within this hybrid photobiocatalyst, TBAP-α functions as an antenna for visible-light absorption and exciton generation, supplying electrons for sacrificial hydrogen production by H-S in aqueous solutions. This coordination allows the hybrid nanoreactor, H-S|TBAP-α, to execute hydrogen evolution exclusively driven by light irradiation with a rate comparable to that of photocatalyst-loaded precious cocatalyst. The established approach to constructing new light-driven biocatalysts combines the synergistic power of biological nanotechnology with the multilength-scale structure and functional control offered by supramolecular organic semiconductors. It opens up innovative opportunities for the fabrication of biomimetic nanoreactors for sustainable fuel production and enzymatic reactions.

Photoinduced electron transfer enables cytochrome P450 enzyme-catalyzed reaction cycling

Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs), the members of the largest superfamily of enzymes in plant kingdom, catalyze a variety of functional group transformations involved in metabolite biosynthesis, end-product derivatization, and exogeneous molecule detoxification. Nevertheless, CYPs' functional characterization and practically industrial application have been largely encumbered by their critical dependency on the reducing equivalent for the catalytic cycling, driven by the tedious electron relay mediated by CYP reductase (CPR). Here, we report a photoinduced electron transfer system that initiates and sustains the CYP-catalyzed reaction cycling. Using Camptotheca acuminata CYP72A565-catalyzed carbon-carbon cleavage reaction, a key biosynthetic reaction in the biosynthesis of plant-derived antitumor monoterpene indole alkaloid camptothecin, as a representative CYP-catalyzed reaction model, we identified eosin Y (EY) and triethanolamine (TEOA) as an efficient photosensitizer/sacrificial reagent pair for the photoinduced electron generating system. The C. acuminata camptothecin 10-hydroxylase-catalyzed regioselective C10-hydroxylation of camptothecin into 10-hydroxycamptothecin could be enabled by the photoinduced electron transfer system, demonstrating that the EY/TEOA pair serves as an efficient surrogate for membranous CPR and can be expanded to other CYP-catalyzed reaction cycling. The catalytic efficiency of the photoinduced electron transfer-driven CYP-catalyzed cycling exceeds that of the native NADPH-dependent CPR-supported CYP-catalyzed reaction, thereby circumventing the dependency on both NADPH and the reductase CPR. The present study provides a photoinduced electron generating and transferring system as an efficient and facile alternative to membranous NADPH-dependent CPR, offering a new avenue for CYP-mediated conversion of complex bioactive natural products using synthetic biology approaches.

A Comprehensive Review of CO2 Hydrogenation into Formate/Formic Acid Catalyzed by Whole Cell Bacteria

The increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, primarily due to the use of fossil fuels, pose a significant threat to the environment and necessitate urgent action to mitigate climate change. Carbon capture and utilization technologies that can convert CO2 into economically valuable compounds have gained attention as potential solutions. Among these technologies, biocatalytic CO2 hydrogenation using bacterial whole cells shows promise for the efficient conversion of CO2 into formate, a valuable chemical compound. Although it was discovered nearly a century ago, comprehensive reviews focusing on the utilization of whole-cell bacteria as the biocatalyst in this area remain relatively limited. Therefore, this review provides an analysis of the progress, strategies, and key findings in this field. It covers the use of living cells, resting cells, or genetically modified bacteria as biocatalysts to convert CO2 into formate, either naturally or with the integration of electrochemical and protochemical techniques as sources of protons and electrons. By consolidating the current knowledge in this field, this review article aims to serve as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding the recent progress, challenges, and potential applications of bacterial whole cell catalyzed CO2 hydrogenation into formate.

Advancements in enzymatic reaction-mediated microbial transformation

Enzymatic reaction-mediated microbial transformation has emerged as a promising technology with significant potential in various industries. These technologies offer the ability to produce enzymes on a large scale, optimize their functionality, and enable sustainable production processes. By utilizing microbial hosts and manipulating their genetic makeup, enzymes can be synthesized efficiently and tailored to meet specific industrial requirements. This leads to enhanced enzyme performance and selectivity, facilitating the development of novel processes and the production of valuable compounds. Moreover, microbial transformation and biosynthesis offer sustainable alternatives to traditional chemical methods, reducing environmental impact and promoting greener production practices. Microbial transformations enrich drug candidate diversity and enhance active ingredient potency, benefiting the pharmaceutical industry. Continued advancements in genetic engineering and bioprocess optimization drive further innovation and application development in Enzymatic reaction-mediated microbial transformation. The integration of AI for predicting enzymatic reactions and optimizing pathways marks a promising direction for future research. In summary, these technologies have the potential to revolutionize several industries by providing cost-effective, sustainable solutions.

Waste Valorization in a Sustainable Bio-Based Economy: The Road to Carbon Neutrality

The development of sustainable chemistry underlying the quest to minimize and/or valorize waste in the carbon-neutral manufacture of chemicals is followed over the last four to five decades. Both chemo- and biocatalysis have played an indispensable role in this odyssey. in particular developments in protein engineering, metagenomics and bioinformatics over the preceding three decades have played a crucial supporting role in facilitating the widespread application of both whole cell and cell-free biocatalysis. The pressing need, driven by climate change mitigation, for a drastic reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, has precipitated an energy transition based on decarbonization of energy and defossilization of organic chemicals production. The latter involves waste biomass and/or waste CO2 as the feedstock and green electricity generated using solar, wind, hydroelectric or nuclear energy. The use of waste polysaccharides as feedstocks will underpin a renaissance in carbohydrate chemistry with pentoses and hexoses as base chemicals and bio-based solvents and polymers as environmentally friendly downstream products. The widespread availability of inexpensive electricity and solar energy has led to increasing attention for electro(bio)catalysis and photo(bio)catalysis which in turn is leading to myriad innovations in these fields.

One-pot chemo- and photo-enzymatic linear cascade processes

The combination of chemo- and photocatalyses with biocatalysis, which couples the flexible reactivity of the photo- and chemocatalysts with the highly selective and environmentally friendly nature of enzymes in one-pot linear cascades, represents a powerful tool in organic synthesis. However, the combination of photo-, chemo- and biocatalysts in one-pot is challenging because the optimal operating conditions of the involved catalyst types may be rather different, and the different stabilities of catalysts and their mutual deactivation are additional problems often encountered in one-pot cascade processes. This review explores a large number of transformations and approaches adopted for combining enzymes and chemo- and photocatalytic processes in a successful way to achieve valuable chemicals and valorisation of biomass. Moreover, the strategies for solving incompatibility issues in chemo-enzymatic reactions are analysed, introducing recent examples of the application of non-conventional solvents, enzyme-metal hybrid catalysts, and spatial compartmentalization strategies to implement chemo-enzymatic cascade processes.

Photo-reduction facilitated stachydrine oxidative N-demethylation reaction: A case study of Rieske non-heme iron oxygenase Stc2 from Sinorhizobium meliloti

Rieske-type non-heme iron oxygenases (ROs) are an important family of non-heme iron enzymes. They catalyze a diverse range of transformations in secondary metabolite biosynthesis and xenobiotic bioremediation. ROs typically shuttle electrons from NAD(P)H to the oxygenase component via reductase component(s). This chapter describes our recent biochemical characterization of stachydrine demethylase Stc2 from Sinorhizobium meliloti. In this work, the eosin Y/sodium sulfite pair serves as the photoreduction system to replace the NAD(P)H-reductase system. We describe Stc2 protein purification and quality control details as well as a flow-chemistry to separate the photo-reduction half-reaction and the oxidation half-reaction. Our study demonstrates that the eosin Y/sodium sulfite photo-reduction pair is a NAD(P)H-reductase surrogate for Stc2-catalysis in a flow-chemistry setting. Experimental protocols used in this light-driven Stc2 catalysis are likely to be applicable as a photo-reduction system for other redox enzymes.

Integration of Enzyme and Covalent Organic Frameworks: From Rational Design to Applications

Manufacturing is undergoing profound transformations, among which green biomanufacturing with low energy consumption, high efficiency, and sustainability is becoming one of the major trends. However, enzymes, as the "core chip" of biomanufacturing, are often handicapped in their application by their high cost, low operational stability, and nonreusability. Immobilization of enzymes is a technology that binds or restricts enzymes in a certain area with solid materials, allows them to still carry out their unique catalytic reaction, and allows them to be recycled and reused. Compared with free enzymes, immobilized enzymes boast numerous advantages such as enhanced storage stability, ease of separation, reusability, and controlled operation. Currently, commonly used supports for enzyme immobilization (e.g., mesoporous silica, sol-gel hydrogels, and porous polymer) can effectively improve enzyme stability and reduce product inhibition. However, they still face drawbacks such as potential leaching or conformational change during immobilization and poor machining performance. Especially, most enzyme carrier solid materials possess disordered structures, inevitably introducing deficiencies such as low loading capacity, hindered mass transfer, and unclear structure-property relationships. Additionally, it remains a notable challenge to meticulously design immobilization systems tailored to the specific characteristics of enzyme/reaction. Therefore, there is a significant demand for reliable solid materials to overcome the above challenges. Crystalline porous materials, particularly covalent organic frameworks (COFs), have garnered significant interest as a promising platform for immobilizing enzymes due to their unique properties, such as their crystalline nature, high porosity, accessible active sites, versatile synthetic conditions, and tunable structure. COFs create a stabilizing microenvironment that protects enzymes from denaturation and significantly enhances reusability. Nevertheless, some challenges still remain, including difficulties in loading large enzymes, reduced enzyme activities, and the limited functionality of carriers. Therefore, it is essential to develop innovative carriers and novel strategies to broaden the methods of immobilizing enzymes, enabling their application across a more diverse array of fields.The integration of enzymes with advanced porous materials for intensified performance and diverse applications is still in its infancy, and our group has done a series of pioneering works. This Account presents a comprehensive overview of recent research progress made by our group, including (i) the development of innovative enzyme immobilization strategies utilizing COFs to make the assembly and integration of enzymes and carriers more effective; (ii) rational design and construction of functional carriers for enzyme immobilization using COFs; and (iii) extensions of immobilized enzyme applications based on COFs from industrial catalysis to biomedicine and chiral separation. The integration of enzymes with functional crystalline materials offers mutual benefits and results in a performance that surpasses what either component can achieve individually. Additionally, immobilized enzymes exhibit enhanced functionality and intriguing characteristics that differ from those of free enzymes. Consistent with our research philosophy centered on integration, platform development, and engineering application, this Account addresses the critical challenges associated with enzyme immobilization using COFs while extending the applications of COFs and proposing future design principles for biomanufacturing and enzyme industry.

Photoenzymatic Enantioselective Synthesis of Oxygen-Containing Benzo-Fused Heterocycles

New-to-nature biocatalysis in organic synthesis has recently emerged as a green and powerful strategy for the preparation of valuable chiral products, among which chiral oxygen-containing benzo-fused heterocycles are important structural motifs in pharmaceutical industry. However, the asymmetric synthesis of these compounds through radical-mediated methods is challenging. Herein, a novel asymmetric radical-mediated photoenzymatic synthesis strategy is developed to realize the efficient enantioselective synthesis of oxygen-containing benzo-fused heterocycles through structure-guided engineering of a flavin-dependent 'ene'-reductase GluER. It shows that variant GluER-W100H could efficiently produce various benzoxepinones, chromanone and indanone with different benzo-fused rings in high yields with great stereoselectivities under visible light. Moreover, these results are well supported by mechanistic experiments, revealing that this photoenzymatic process involves electron donor-acceptor complex formation, single electron transfer and hydrogen atom transfer. Therefore, we provide an alternative green approach for efficient chemoenzymatic synthesis of important chiral skeletons of bioactive pharmaceuticals.

Photoredox/Enzymatic Catalysis Enabling Redox-Neutral Decarboxylative Asymmetric C-C Coupling for Asymmetric Synthesis of Chiral 1,2-Amino Alcohols

Photocatalysis offers tremendous opportunities for enzymes to access new functions. Herein, we described a redox-neutral photocatalysis/enzymatic catalysis system for the asymmetric synthesis of chiral 1,2-amino alcohols via decarboxylative radical C-C coupling of N-arylglycines and aldehydes by combining an organic photocatalyst, eosin Y, and carbonyl reductase RasADH. Notably, this protocol avoids using any sacrificial reductants. A possible reaction mechanism proposed is that the transformation proceeds through sequential photoinduced decarboxylative radical addition to an aldehyde and a photoenzymatic deracemization pathway. This redox-neutral photoredox/enzymatic strategy is promising not only for effective synthesis of a series of chiral amino alcohols in a green and sustainable manner but also for the design of other novel C-C radical coupling transformations for the synthesis of bioactive molecules.

Cyanobacteria-Mediated Light-Driven Biotransformation: The Current Status and Perspectives

Most chemicals are manufactured by traditional chemical processes but at the expense of toxic catalyst use, high energy consumption, and waste generation. Biotransformation is a green, sustainable, and cost-effective process. As cyanobacteria can use light as the energy source to power the synthesis of NADPH and ATP, using cyanobacteria as the chassis organisms to design and develop light-driven biotransformation platforms for chemical synthesis has been gaining attention, since it can provide a theoretical and practical basis for the sustainable and green production of chemicals. Meanwhile, metabolic engineering and genome editing techniques have tremendous prospects for further engineering and optimizing chassis cells to achieve efficient light-driven systems for synthesizing various chemicals. Here, we display the potential of cyanobacteria as a promising light-driven biotransformation platform for the efficient synthesis of green chemicals and current achievements of light-driven biotransformation processes in wild-type or genetically modified cyanobacteria. Meanwhile, future perspectives of one-pot enzymatic cascade biotransformation from biobased materials in cyanobacteria have been proposed, which could provide additional research insights for green biotransformation and accelerate the advancement of biomanufacturing industries.

Removal and detoxification of pentahalogenated phenols using a photocatalytically induced enzymatic process

Poly-halogenated phenols generated from a range of industrial processes can find their way into rivers and ground water. Here we report on a potential treatment for reducing the toxicity of these aqueous pollutants using two highly toxic penta-halogenated phenols (pentachlorophenol (PCP) and pentabromophenol (PBP)) as surrogates. Solutions were passed through a glass column packed with a silica support fused with titanium dioxide (TiO2) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) immobilized on its TiO2/glass surface (HRP-Tglass). TiO2 photocatalysis was activated through irradiation with UVB (320 nm) which in turn activated the HRP. Two operational flow rates (0.5 and 1.25 mL min-1; hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 20 and 8 min, respectively), tested the effect of retention time on the extent of degradation and reduction in toxicity of the treated effluent. Microtox® was used to measure the toxicity of the substrate and its by-products at both flow rates. At the highest flow rate, dehalogenation was limited (removal of 37 % chlorine and 22 % bromine) and the toxicity of the reaction products increased. At the lowest flow rate, the longer exposure time resulted in approximately 97 % and 96 % transformation of PCP and PBP, respectively, a greater degree of dehalogenation (removal of 65 % chlorine and 70 % bromine) and a substantial decrease in toxicity of the treated solutions. The higher toxicity of effluent from the higher flow rate was attributed to the initial degradation products being more toxic than the substrates. With a longer HRT, these were then further broken down to less toxic products. Additional toxicity tests (Hydra hexactinella (Hydra) and Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell toxicity were conducted on the effluent from the lowest flow rate. Both were less sensitive than the Microtox test, with Hydra proving more sensitive than CHO. The novelty of this work is the toxicity risk assessment of the products resulting from the use of a spatially separated immobilized enzyme and photooxidation system. The system was robust and showed no decrease in treatment efficacy over 10 h.

Plant Photocatalysts: Photoinduced Oxidation and Reduction Abilities of Plant Leaf Ashes under Solar Light

Plant leaf ashes were obtained via the high temperature calcination of the leaves of various plants, such as sugarcane, couchgrass, bracteata, garlic sprout, and the yellowish leek. Although the photosynthesis systems in plant leaves cannot exist after calcination, minerals in these ashes were found to exhibit photochemical activities. The samples showed solar light photocatalytic oxidation activities sufficient to degrade methylene blue dye. They were also shown to possess intrinsic dehydrogenase-like activities in reducing the colorless electron acceptor 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride to a red formazan precipitate under solar light irradiation. The possible reasons behind these two unreported phenomena were also investigated. These ashes were characterized using a combination of physicochemical techniques. Moreover, our findings exemplify how the soluble and insoluble minerals in plant leaf ashes can be synergistically designed to yield next-generation photocatalysts. It may also lead to advances in artificial photosynthesis and photocatalytic dehydrogenase.

A one-pot Pd- and P450-catalyzed chemoenzymatic synthesis of a library of oxyfunctionalized biaryl alkanoic acids leveraging a substrate anchoring approach

A one-pot chemoenzymatic approach was developed by combining Palladium-catalysis with selective cytochrome P450 enzyme oxyfunctionalization. Various iodophenyl alkanoic acids could be coupled with alkylphenyl boronic acids to generate a series of alkyl substituted biarylalkanoic acids in overall high yield. The identity of the products could be confirmed by various analytical and chromatographic techniques. Addition of an engineered cytochrome P450 heme domain mutant with peroxygenase activity upon completion of the chemical reaction resulted in the selective oxyfunctionalization of those compounds, primarily at the benzylic position. Moreover, in order to increase the biocatalytic product conversion, a reversible substrate engineering approach was developed. This involves the coupling of a bulky amino acid such as L- phenylalanine or tryptophan, to the carboxylic acid moiety. The approach resulted in a 14 to 49% overall biocatalytic product conversion increase associated with a change in regioselectivity of hydroxylation towards less favored positions.

Direct Biocatalytic Processes for CO2 Capture as a Green Tool to Produce Value-Added Chemicals

Direct biocatalytic processes for CO₂ capture and transformation in value-added chemicals may be considered a useful tool for reducing the concentration of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Among the other enzymes, carbonic anhydrase (CA) and formate dehydrogenase (FDH) are two key biocatalysts suitable for this challenge, facilitating the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in complementary ways. Carbonic anhydrases accelerate CO₂ uptake by promoting its solubility in water in the form of hydrogen carbonate as the first step in converting the gas into a species widely used in carbon capture storage and its utilization processes (CCSU), particularly in carbonation and mineralization methods. On the other hand, formate dehydrogenases represent the biocatalytic machinery evolved by certain organisms to convert CO₂ into enriched, reduced, and easily transportable hydrogen species, such as formic acid, via enzymatic cascade systems that obtain energy from chemical species, electrochemical sources, or light. Formic acid is the basis for fixing C₁-carbon species to other, more reduced molecules. In this review, the state-of-the-art of both methods of CO₂ uptake is assessed, highlighting the biotechnological approaches that have been developed using both enzymes.

Photocatalytic Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide from Molecular Oxygen and Water

Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful and green oxidant that allows for the oxidation of a wide span of organic and inorganic substrates in liquid media under mild reaction conditions, and forms only molecular water and oxygen as end products. Hydrogen peroxide is therefore used in a wide range of applications, for which the well-documented and established anthraquinone autoxidation process is by far the dominating production method at the industrial scale. As this method is highly energy consuming and environmentally costly, the search for more sustainable synthesis methods is of high interest. To this end, the article reviews the basis and the recent development of the photocatalytic synthesis of hydrogen peroxide. Different oxygen reduction and water oxidation mechanisms are discussed, as well as several kinetic models, and the influence of the main key reaction parameters is itemized. A large range of photocatalytic materials is reviewed, with emphasis on titania-based photocatalysts and on high-prospect graphitic carbon nitride-based systems that take advantage of advanced bulk and surface synthetic approaches. Strategies for enhancing the performances of solar-driven photocatalysts are reported, and the search for new, alternative, photocatalytic materials is detailed. Finally, the promise of in situ photocatalytic synthesis of hydrogen peroxide for water treatment and organic synthesis is described, as well as its coupling with enzymes and the direct in situ synthesis of other technical peroxides.

One-pot sequential cascade reaction for selective gluconic acid production from cellulose photobiorefining

We demonstrate the feasibility of cellulose photobiocatalytic conversion with >75% cellulose conversion and >75% gluconic acid selectivity from converted glucose. This process is realized via a one-pot sequential cascade reaction by cellulase enzymes and a carbon nitride photocatalyst that can realize selective glucose photoreforming into gluconic acid. Cellulase enzymes breakdown cellulose into glucose, which will subsequently be converted into gluconic acid by essential oxidative species (˙O₂^- and ˙OH) via a selective photocatalysis process with simultaneous H₂O₂ formation. This work demonstrates a good example to realize direct cellulose photobiorefining into value-added chemicals via the photo-bio hybrid system.

Cell-free enzyme cascades - application and transition from development to industrial implementation

In the vision to realize a circular economy aiming for net carbon neutrality or even negativity, cell-free bioconversion of sustainable and renewable resources emerged as a promising strategy. The potential of in vitro systems is enormous, delivering technological, ecological, and ethical added values. Innovative concepts arose in cell-free enzymatic conversions to reduce process waste production and preserve fossil resources, as well as to redirect and assimilate released industrial pollutions back into the production cycle again. However, the great challenge in the near future will be the jump from a concept to an industrial application. The transition process in industrial implementation also requires economic aspects such as productivity, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. Here, we briefly review the latest proof-of-concept cascades using carbon dioxide and other C1 or lignocellulose-derived chemicals as blueprints to efficiently recycle greenhouse gases, as well as cutting-edge technologies to maturate these concepts to industrial pilot plants.

Supramolecular Coordination Cages for Artificial Photosynthesis and Synthetic Photocatalysis

Because sunlight is the most abundant energy source on earth, it has huge potential for practical applications ranging from sustainable energy supply to light driven chemistry. From a chemical perspective, excited states generated by light make thermodynamically uphill reactions possible, which forms the basis for energy storage into fuels. In addition, with light, open-shell species can be generated which open up new reaction pathways in organic synthesis. Crucial are photosensitizers, which absorb light and transfer energy to substrates by various mechanisms, processes that highly depend on the distance between the molecules involved. Supramolecular coordination cages are well studied and synthetically accessible reaction vessels with single cavities for guest binding, ensuring close proximity of different components. Due to high modularity of their size, shape, and the nature of metal centers and ligands, cages are ideal platforms to exploit preorganization in photocatalysis. Herein we focus on the application of supramolecular cages for photocatalysis in artificial photosynthesis and in organic photo(redox) catalysis. Finally, a brief overview of immobilization strategies for supramolecular cages provides tools for implementing cages into devices. This review provides inspiration for future design of photocatalytic supramolecular host-guest systems and their application in producing solar fuels and complex organic molecules.

Cascade Processes Merging Chemical and Enzyme Catalysis

Cascade processes are an attractive strategy to rapidly build molecular complexity and circumvent the need to isolate reaction intermediates, providing higher efficiencies into synthetic routes with lower environmental toll. We have recently developed a new method to synthesise chiral 1,4-nitro alcohols by sequentially combining three transformations in the same reaction vessel via asymmetric C–C bond formation using a chiral thiourea catalyst and a bioreduction process as key steps.

1 Introduction

2 A Chemoenzymatic Cascade to Make Chiral 1,4-Nitro Alcohols

3 Conclusions and Perspectives

Fast quinazolinone synthesis by combining enzymatic catalysis and photocatalysis

A fast and highly efficient method for the synthesis of functionalized quinazolinones by combining enzymatic catalysis and photocatalysis is reported. The α-Chymotrypsin catalyzed the cyclization of aldehyde and 2-aminobenzamide, which was subsequently followed by White LED-induced oxidation of 2-phenyl-2, 3-dihydroquinazolin-4(1H)-one to obtain quinazolinone. The reaction process was highly efficient with a reaction yield of 99% in just 2 h, and a wide range of quinazolinones could be synthesized. Furthermore, the plausible mechanism was investigated by control experiments and DFT calculations. This protocol provides an alternative synthetic route for the preparation of quinazolinone derivatives.

Design and Investigation of a Photocatalytic Setup for Efficient Biotransformations Within Recombinant Cyanobacteria in Continuous Flow

Photo- and biocatalysis show many advantages as more sustainable solutions for the production of fine chemicals. In an effort to combine the benefits and the knowledge of both these areas, a continuous photobiocatalytic setup was designed and optimized to carry out whole-cell biotransformations within cells of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 expressing the gene of the ene-reductase YqjM from B. subtilis. The effect of the light intensity and flow rate on the specific activity in the stereoselective reduction of 2-methyl maleimide was investigated via a design-of-experiments approach. The cell density in the setup was further increased at the optimal operating conditions without loss in specific activity, demonstrating that the higher surface area/volume ratio in the coil reactor improved the illumination efficiency of the process. Furthermore, different reactor designs were compared, proving that the presented approach was the most cost- and time-effective solution for intensifying photobiotransformations within cyanobacterial cells.

Redox Biocatalysis: Quantitative Comparisons of Nicotinamide Cofactor Regeneration Methods

Enzymatic processes, particularly those capable of performing redox reactions, have recently been of growing research interest. Substrate specificity, optimal activity at mild temperatures, high selectivity, and yield are among the desirable characteristics of these oxidoreductase catalyzed reactions. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) or NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases have been extensively studied for their potential applications like biosynthesis of chiral organic compounds, construction of biosensors, and pollutant degradation. One of the main challenges associated with making these processes commercially viable is the regeneration of the expensive cofactors required by the enzymes. Numerous efforts have pursued enzymatic regeneration of NAD(P)H by coupling a substrate reduction with a complementary enzyme catalyzed oxidation of a co-substrate. While offering excellent selectivity and high total turnover numbers, such processes involve complicated downstream product separation of a primary product from the coproducts and impurities. Alternative methods comprising chemical, electrochemical, and photochemical regeneration have been developed with the goal of enhanced efficiency and operational simplicity compared to enzymatic regeneration. Despite the goal, however, the literature rarely offers a meaningful comparison of the total turnover numbers for various regeneration methodologies. This comprehensive Review systematically discusses various methods of NAD(P)H cofactor regeneration and quantitatively compares performance across the numerous methods. Further, fundamental barriers to enhanced cofactor regeneration in the various methods are identified, and future opportunities are highlighted for improving the efficiency and sustainability of commercially viable oxidoreductase processes for practical implementation.

Light-Driven Oxidative Demethylation Reaction Catalyzed by a Rieske-Type Non-heme Iron Enzyme Stc2

Rieske-type non-heme iron oxygenases/oxidases catalyze a wide range of transformations. Their applications in bioremediation or biocatalysis face two key barriers: the need of expensive NAD(P)H as a reductant and a proper reductase to mediate the electron transfer from NAD(P)H to the oxygenases. To bypass the need of both the reductase and NAD(P)H, using Rieske-type oxygenase (Stc2) catalyzed oxidative demethylation as the model system, we report Stc2 photocatalysis using eosin Y/sulfite as the photosensitizer/sacrificial reagent pair. In a flow-chemistry setting to separate the photo-reduction half-reaction and oxidation half-reaction, Stc2 photo-biocatalysis outperforms the Stc2-NAD(P)H-reductase (GbcB) system. In addition, in a few other selected Rieske enzymes (NdmA, CntA, and GbcA), and a flavin-dependent enzyme (iodotyrosine deiodinase, IYD), the eosin Y/sodium sulfite photo-reduction pair could also serve as the NAD(P)H-reductase surrogate to support catalysis, which implies the potential applicability of this photo-reduction system to other redox enzymes.

Combined chemoenzymatic strategy for sustainable continuous synthesis of the natural product hordenine

To improve sustainability, safety and cost-efficiency of synthetic methodologies, biocatalysis can be a helpful ally. In this work, a novel chemoenzymatic stategy ensures the rapid synthesis of hordenine, a valuable phenolic phytochemical under mild working conditions. In a two-step cascade, the immobilized tyrosine decarboxylase from Lactobacillus brevis (LbTDC) is here coupled with the chemical reductive amination of tyramine. Starting from the abundant and cost-effective amino acid l-tyrosine, the complete conversion to hordenine is achieved in less than 5 minutes residence time in a fully-automated continuous flow system. Compared to the metal-catalyzed N,N-dimethylation of tyramine, this biocatalytic approach reduces the process environmental impact and improves its STY to 2.68 g L^-1 h^-1.

Artificial photosynthesis systems for solar energy conversion and storage: platforms and their realities

In natural photosynthesis, photosynthetic organisms such as green plants realize efficient solar energy conversion and storage by integrating photosynthetic components on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. Inspired by natural photosynthesis, researchers have developed many artificial photosynthesis systems (APS's) that integrate various photocatalysts and biocatalysts to convert and store solar energy in the fields of resource, environment, food, and energy. To improve the system efficiency and reduce the operation cost, reaction platforms are introduced in APS's since they allow for great stability and continuous processing. A systematic understanding of how a reaction platform affects the performance of artificial photosynthesis is conducive for designing an APS with superb solar energy utilization. In this review, we discuss the recent APS's researches, especially those confined on/in platforms. The importance of different platforms and their influences on APS's performance are emphasized. Generally, confined platforms can enhance the stability and repeatability of both photocatalysts and biocatalysts in APS's as well as improve the photosynthetic performance due to the proximity effect. For functional platforms that can participate in the artificial photosynthesis reactions as active parts, a high integration of APS's components on/in these platforms can lead to efficient electron transfer, enhanced light-harvesting, or synergistic catalysis, resulting in superior photosynthesis performance. Therefore, the integration of APS's components is beneficial for the transfer of substrates and photoexcited electrons in artificial photosynthesis. We finally summarize the current challenges of APS's development and further efforts on the improvement of APS's.

Multistep enzyme cascades as a route towards green and sustainable pharmaceutical syntheses

Enzyme cascades are a powerful technology to develop environmentally friendly and cost-effective synthetic processes to manufacture drugs, as they couple different biotransformations in sequential reactions to synthesize the product. These biocatalytic tools can address two key parameters for the pharmaceutical industry: an improved selectivity of synthetic reactions and a reduction of potential hazards by using biocompatible catalysts, which can be produced from sustainable sources, which are biodegradable and, generally, non-toxic. Here we outline a broad variety of enzyme cascades used either in vivo (whole cells) or in vitro (purified enzymes) to specifically target pharmaceutically relevant molecules, from simple building blocks to complex drugs. We also discuss the advantages and requirements of multistep enzyme cascades and their combination with chemical catalysts through a series of reported examples. Finally, we examine the efficiency of enzyme cascades and how they can be further improved by enzyme engineering, process intensification in flow reactors and/or enzyme immobilization to meet all the industrial requirements.

Synthesis of Enantiopure Sulfoxides by Concurrent Photocatalytic Oxidation and Biocatalytic Reduction

The concurrent operation of chemical and biocatalytic reactions in one pot is still a challenging task, and, in particular for chemical photocatalysts, examples besides simple cofactor recycling systems are rare. However, especially due to the complementary chemistry that the two fields of catalysis promote, their combination in one pot has the potential to unlock intriguing, unprecedented overall reactivities. Herein we demonstrate a concurrent biocatalytic reduction and photocatalytic oxidation process. Specifically, the enantioselective biocatalytic sulfoxide reduction using (S)-selective methionine sulfoxide reductases was coupled to an unselective light-dependent sulfoxidation. Protochlorophyllide was established as a new green photocatalyst for the sulfoxidation. Overall, a cyclic deracemization process to produce nonracemic sulfoxides was achieved and the target compounds were obtained with excellent conversions (up to 91 %) and superb optical purity (>99 % ee).

Synthesis of Enantiopure Sulfoxides by Concurrent Photocatalytic Oxidation and Biocatalytic Reduction

The concurrent operation of chemical and biocatalytic reactions in one pot is still a challenging task, and, in particular for chemical photocatalysts, examples besides simple cofactor recycling systems are rare. However, especially due to the complementary chemistry that the two fields of catalysis promote, their combination in one pot has the potential to unlock intriguing, unprecedented overall reactivities. Herein we demonstrate a concurrent biocatalytic reduction and photocatalytic oxidation process. Specifically, the enantioselective biocatalytic sulfoxide reduction using (S)-selective methionine sulfoxide reductases was coupled to an unselective light-dependent sulfoxidation. Protochlorophyllide was established as a new green photocatalyst for the sulfoxidation. Overall, a cyclic deracemization process to produce nonracemic sulfoxides was achieved and the target compounds were obtained with excellent conversions (up to 91 %) and superb optical purity (>99 % ee).

Technological Innovations in Photochemistry for Organic Synthesis: Flow Chemistry, High-Throughput Experimentation, Scale-up, and Photoelectrochemistry

Photoinduced chemical transformations have received in recent years a tremendous amount of attention, providing a plethora of opportunities to synthetic organic chemists. However, performing a photochemical transformation can be quite a challenge because of various issues related to the delivery of photons. These challenges have barred the widespread adoption of photochemical steps in the chemical industry. However, in the past decade, several technological innovations have led to more reproducible, selective, and scalable photoinduced reactions. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of these exciting technological advances, including flow chemistry, high-throughput experimentation, reactor design and scale-up, and the combination of photo- and electro-chemistry.

Stimuli-Responsive Regulation of Biocatalysis through Metallic Nanoparticle Interaction

The remote control of biocatalytic processes in an extracellular medium is an exciting idea to deliver innovative solutions in the biocatalysis field. With this purpose, metallic nanoparticles (NPs) are great candidates, as their inherent thermal, electric, magnetic, and plasmonic properties can readily be manipulated upon external stimuli. Exploring the unique NP properties beyond an anchoring platform for enzymes brings up the opportunity to extend the efficiency of biocatalysts and modulate their activity through triggered events. In this review, we discuss a set of external stimuli, such as light, electricity, magnetism, and temperature, as tools for the regulation of nanobiocatalysis, including the challenges and perspectives regarding their use. In addition, we elaborate on the use of combined stimuli that create a more refined framework in terms of a multiresponsive system. Finally, we envision this review might instigate researchers in this field of study with a set of promising opportunities in the near future.

Acceleration of oxidation promoted by laccase irradiation with red light

Irradiation with red light is able to improve yields and shorten the reaction time in enzymatic reactions.

Radical umpolung chemistry enabled by dual catalysis: concept and recent advances

We present a perspective on recent advances in radical umpolung chemistry; some selected examples in this area have been highlighted.

Reactivity and selectivity modulation within a molecular assembly: recent examples from photochemistry

In recent years, photochemical reactions have emerged as powerful transformations which significantly expand the repertoire of organic synthesis. However, a certain lack of selectivity can hamper their application and limit their scope. In this context, a major research effort continues to focus on an improved control over stereo- and chemoselectivity that can be achieved in molecular assemblies between photosubstrates and an appropriate host molecule. In this tutorial review, some recent, representative examples of photochemical reactions have been collected whose unique outcome is dictated by the formation of a molecular assembly driven by non-covalent weak interactions.

Photoenzymatic Synthesis of α-Tertiary Amines by Engineered Flavin-Dependent "Ene"-Reductases

α-Tertiary amines are a common motif in pharmaceutically important molecules but are challenging to prepare using asymmetric catalysis. Here, we demonstrate engineered flavin-dependent 'ene'-reductases (EREDs) can catalyze radical additions into oximes to prepare this motif. Two different EREDs were evolved into competent catalysts for this transformation with high levels of stereoselectivity. Mechanistic studies indicate that the oxime contributes to the enzyme templated charge-transfer complex formed between the substrate and cofactor. These products can be further derivatized to prepare a variety of motifs, highlighting the versatility of ERED photoenzymatic catalysis for organic synthesis.

Shortening Synthetic Routes to Small Molecule Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Employing Biocatalytic Methods

Biocatalysis, using enzymes for organic synthesis, has emerged as powerful tool for the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The first industrial biocatalytic processes launched in the first half of the last century exploited whole-cell microorganisms where the specific enzyme at work was not known. In the meantime, novel molecular biology methods, such as efficient gene sequencing and synthesis, triggered breakthroughs in directed evolution for the rapid development of process-stable enzymes with broad substrate scope and good selectivities tailored for specific substrates. To date, enzymes are employed to enable shorter, more efficient, and more sustainable alternative routes toward (established) small molecule APIs, and are additionally used to perform standard reactions in API synthesis more efficiently. Herein, large-scale synthetic routes containing biocatalytic key steps toward >130 APIs of approved drugs and drug candidates are compared with the corresponding chemical protocols (if available) regarding the steps, reaction conditions, and scale. The review is structured according to the functional group formed in the reaction.

Fatty Acid Photodecarboxylase Is an Interfacial Enzyme That Binds to Lipid-Water Interfaces to Access Its Insoluble Substrate

Fatty acid photodecarboxylase (FAP), one of the few natural photoenzymes characterized so far, is a promising biocatalyst for lipid-to-hydrocarbon conversion using light. However, the optimum supramolecular organization under which the fatty acid (FA) substrate should be presented to FAP has not been addressed. Using palmitic acid embedded in phospholipid liposomes, phospholipid-stabilized microemulsions, and mixed micelles, we show that FAP displays a preference for FAs present in liposomes and at the surface of microemulsions. The kinetics of adsorption onto phospholipid and galactolipid monomolecular films further suggests the ability of FAP to bind to and penetrate into membranes, with a higher affinity in the presence of FAs. The FAP structure reveals a potential interfacial recognition site with clusters of hydrophobic and basic residues surrounding the active site entrance. The resulting dipolar moment suggests the orientation of FAP at negatively charged interfaces. These findings provide important clues about the mode of action of FAP and the development of FAP-based bioconversion processes.

Recent trends in biocatalysis

Biocatalysis has undergone revolutionary progress in the past century. Benefited by the integration of multidisciplinary technologies, natural enzymatic reactions are constantly being explored. Protein engineering gives birth to robust biocatalysts that are widely used in industrial production. These research achievements have gradually constructed a network containing natural enzymatic synthesis pathways and artificially designed enzymatic cascades. Nowadays, the development of artificial intelligence, automation, and ultra-high-throughput technology provides infinite possibilities for the discovery of novel enzymes, enzymatic mechanisms and enzymatic cascades, and gradually complements the lack of remaining key steps in the pathway design of enzymatic total synthesis. Therefore, the research of biocatalysis is gradually moving towards the era of novel technology integration, intelligent manufacturing and enzymatic total synthesis.