MicroRNA-185 inhibits angiogenesis in human microvascular endothelial cells through targeting stromal interaction molecule 1

New advances in the research of clinical treatment and novel anticancer agents in tumor angiogenesis

In 1971, Folkman proposed that tumors could be limited to very small sizes by blocking angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is the generation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels, considered to be one of the important processes in tumor growth and metastasis. Angiogenesis is a complex process regulated by various factors and involves many secreted factors and signaling pathways. Angiogenesis is important in the transport of oxygen and nutrients to the tumor during tumor development. Therefore, inhibition of angiogenesis has become an important strategy in the clinical management of many solid tumors. Combination therapies of angiogenesis inhibitors with radiotherapy and chemotherapy are often used in clinical practice. In this article, we will review common targets against angiogenesis, the most common and up-to-date anti-angiogenic drugs and clinical treatments in recent years, including active ingredients from chemical and herbal medicines.

The miRNA-185-5p/STIM1 Axis Regulates the Invasiveness of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Cell Lines by Modulating EGFR Activation-Stimulated Switch from E- to N-Cadherin

Distant metastasis remains the primary cause of treatment failure and suggests a poor prognosis in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a critical cellular process for initiating a tumor invasion and remote metastasis. Our previous study showed that the blockage of the stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1)-mediated Ca²⁺ signaling blunts the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-promoted cell migration and inhibits the dissemination and lymphatic metastasis of NPC cells. However, the upstream signaling pathway that regulates the STIM1 expression remains unknown. In this follow-up study, we demonstrated that the miRNA-185-5p/STIM1 axis is implicated in the regulation of the metastatic potential of 5-8F cells, a highly invasive NPC cell line. We demonstrate that the knockdown of STIM1 attenuates the migration ability of 5-8F cells by inhibiting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation-induced switch from E- to N-cadherin in vitro. In addition, the STIM1 knockdown inhibited the locoregional lymphatic invasion of the 5-8F cells in mice. Furthermore, we identified miRNA-185-5p as an upstream regulator that negatively regulates the expression of STIM1. Our findings suggest that the miRNA-185-5p/STIM1 axis regulates the invasiveness of NPC cell lines by affecting the EGFR activation-modulated cell adhesiveness. The miRNA-185-5p/STIM1 axis may serve as a potentially effective therapeutic target for the treatment of NPC.

Long-term in vivo survival of 3D-bioprinted human lipoaspirate-derived adipose tissue: proteomic signature and cellular content

Three-dimensional (3D)-bioprinted lipoaspirate-derived adipose tissue (LAT) is a potential alternative to lipo-injection for correcting soft-tissue defects. This study investigated the long-term in vivo survival of 3D-bioprinted LAT and its proteomic signature and cellular composition. We performed proteomic and multicolour flow cytometric analyses on the lipoaspirate and 3D-bioprinted LAT constructs were transplanted into nude mice, followed by explantation after up to 150 days. LAT contained adipose-tissue-derived stem cells (ASCs), pericytes, endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and endothelial cells. Proteomic analysis identified 6,067 proteins, including pericyte markers, adipokines, ASC secretome proteins, proangiogenic proteins and proteins involved in adipocyte differentiation and developmental morphogenic signalling, as well as proteins not previously described in human subcutaneous fat. 3D-bioprinted LAT survived for 150 days in vivo with preservation of the construct shape and size. Furthermore, we identified human blood vessels after 30 and 150 days in vivo, indicating angiogenesis from capillaries. These results showed that LAT has a favourable proteomic signature, contains ASCs, EPCs and blood vessels that survive 3D bioprinting and can potentially facilitate angiogenesis and successful autologous fat grafting in soft-tissue reconstruction.

Serum microRNA-185 Levels and Myocardial Injury in Patients with Acute ST-segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction

Objective Human microRNA-185 (miR-185) has been reported to act as a regulator of fibrosis and angiogenesis in cancer. However, miR-185 has not been investigated in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). We hypothesized that the changes in miR-185 levels in STEMI patients are related to the processes of myocardial healing and remodeling. Methods Between January 2011 and December 2013, 145 patients with STEMI (65.9±11.6 years old; 41 women) were enrolled. Initial and discharge serum samples collected from 20 patients with STEMI and mixed sera from 8 healthy controls were analyzed by a microarray. A quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis of miR-185 was performed in all 145 patients. The correlation between the miR-185 levels and the clinical, laboratory, angiographic, and echocardiographic parameters was analyzed. Results The microarray analysis revealed a biphasic pattern in miR-185 levels, with an initial decrease followed by an increase at discharge. The miR-185 levels at discharge were significantly correlated with the troponin-I, CK-MB, and area under the curve of CK-MB levels. There was a positive correlation between the transforming growth factor-β and miR-185 levels at discharge (ρ=0.242, p=0.026). A high wall motion score index and a low ejection fraction, as measured by echocardiography, and high B-type natriuretic peptide level at one month after STEMI were related to high miR-185 levels. Conclusion Our results showed that elevated miR-185 levels at the late stage of STEMI were related to a large amount of myocardial injury and adverse remodeling.

MiR-185-5p regulates the development of myocardial fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Cardiac fibrosis stiffens the ventricular wall, predisposes to cardiac arrhythmias and contributes to the development of heart failure. In the present study, our aim was to identify novel miRNAs that regulate the development of cardiac fibrosis and could serve as potential therapeutic targets for myocardial fibrosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Analysis for cardiac samples from sudden cardiac death victims with extensive myocardial fibrosis as the primary cause of death identified dysregulation of miR-185-5p. Analysis of resident cardiac cells from mice subjected to experimental cardiac fibrosis model showed induction of miR-185-5p expression specifically in cardiac fibroblasts. In vitro, augmenting miR-185-5p induced collagen production and profibrotic activation in cardiac fibroblasts, whereas inhibition of miR-185-5p attenuated collagen production. In vivo, targeting miR-185-5p in mice abolished pressure overload induced cardiac interstitial fibrosis. Mechanistically, miR-185-5p targets apelin receptor and inhibits the anti-fibrotic effects of apelin. Finally, analysis of left ventricular tissue from patients with severe cardiomyopathy showed an increase in miR-185-5p expression together with pro-fibrotic TGF-β1 and collagen I.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that miR-185-5p targets apelin receptor and promotes myocardial fibrosis.

Exosomal Transfer of miR-185 Is Controlled by hnRNPA2B1 and Impairs Re-endothelialization After Vascular Injury

Dysfunction of endothelial cells (ECs) contributes to restenosis after vascular reconstruction for patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). The intercellular communication between ECs and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) might be critical in the development of restenosis and can be mediated by exosomes carrying functional microRNAs. miR-185 is reported to be associated with atherosclerosis, whether it plays a similar role in restenosis is unknown. In this study, we observed an elevated level of extracellular miR-185 in platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-stimulated VSMCs. The medium from PDGF-stimulated VSMCs promoted miR-185 expression in rat aortic ECs and inhibited EC angiogenesis. PDGF-stimulated VSMCs transferred miR-185 into ECs via exosomes. Furthermore, we found that the CXCL12 gene, a target of miR-185, is essential for the angiogenic potential of ECs. Exosomes derived from miR-185 mimic transfected VSMCs attenuated re-endothelialization after vascular injury. Moreover, we show that exosome-mediated miR-185 transfer is modulated by hnRNPA2B1. We also observed that hnRNPA2B1 is up-regulated during neointima formation and hnRNPA2B1 inhibition accelerates re-endothelialization and attenuates neointima formation following carotid injury. Taken together, our results indicate that exosomal miR-185 transfer from VSMCs to ECs is controlled by hnRNPA2B1 and impairs re-endothelialization after vascular injury.

Rhamnocitrin extracted from Nervilia fordii inhibited vascular endothelial activation via miR-185/STIM-1/SOCE/NFATc3

BACKGROUND

Vascular endothelial activation is pivotal for the pathological development of various infectious and inflammatory diseases. Therapeutic interventions to prevent endothelial activation are of great clinical significance to achieve anti-inflammatory strategy. Previous studies indicate that the total flavonoids from the endemic herbal medicine Nervilia fordii (Hance) Schltr exerts potent anti-inflammatory effect and protective effect against endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury, and shows clinical benefit in severe acute respiratory syndromes (SARS). However, the exact effective component of Nervilia fordii and its potential mechanism remain unknown.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect and mechanism of rhamnocitrin (RH), a flavonoid extracted from Nervilia fordii, on LPS-induced endothelial activation.

METHODS

The in vitro endothelial cell activation model was induced by LPS in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Cell viability was measured to determine the cytotoxicity of RH. RT-PCR, Western blot, fluorescent probe and immunofluorescence were conducted to evaluate the effect and mechanism of RH against endothelial activation.

RESULTS

RH was extracted and isolated from Nervilia fordii. RH at the concentration from 10^-7 M-10^-5 M inhibited the expressions of interlukin-6 (IL-6) and -8 (IL-8), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell-adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in response to LPS challenge. Mechanistically, RH repressed calcium store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) induced by LPS, which is due to downregulation of stromal interaction molecule-1 (STIM-1) following upregulating microRNA-185 (miR-185). Ultimately, RH abrogated LPS-induced activation of SOCE-mediated calcineurin/NFATc3 (nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 3) signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

The present study identifies RH as a potent inhibitor of endothelial activation. Since vascular endothelial activation is a pivotal cause of excessive cytokine production, leading to cytokine storm and severe pathology in infectious diseases such as SARS and the ongoing COVID-19 pneumonia disease, RH might suggest promising therapeutic potential in the management of cytokine storm in these diseases.

Extracellular Vesicle miRNAs in the Promotion of Cardiac Neovascularisation

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide claiming almost 17. 9 million deaths annually. A primary cause is atherosclerosis within the coronary arteries, which restricts blood flow to the heart muscle resulting in myocardial infarction (MI) and cardiac cell death. Despite substantial progress in the management of coronary heart disease (CHD), there is still a significant number of patients developing chronic heart failure post-MI. Recent research has been focused on promoting neovascularisation post-MI with the ultimate goal being to reduce the extent of injury and improve function in the failing myocardium. Cardiac cell transplantation studies in pre-clinical models have shown improvement in cardiac function; nonetheless, poor retention of the cells has indicated a paracrine mechanism for the observed improvement. Cell communication in a paracrine manner is controlled by various mechanisms, including extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs have emerged as novel regulators of intercellular communication, by transferring molecules able to influence molecular pathways in the recipient cell. Several studies have demonstrated the ability of EVs to stimulate angiogenesis by transferring microRNA (miRNA, miR) molecules to endothelial cells (ECs). In this review, we describe the process of neovascularisation and current developments in modulating neovascularisation in the heart using miRNAs and EV-bound miRNAs. Furthermore, we critically evaluate methods used in cell culture, EV isolation and administration.

Extracellular Vesicles and MicroRNA: Putative Role in Diagnosis and Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complex, progressive, and heterogenous retinal degenerative disease associated with diabetes duration. It is characterized by glial, neural, and microvascular dysfunction, being the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown a hallmark of the early stages. In advanced stages, there is formation of new blood vessels, which are fragile and prone to leaking. This disease, if left untreated, may result in severe vision loss and eventually legal blindness. Although there are some available treatment options for DR, most of them are targeted to the advanced stages of the disease, have some adverse effects, and many patients do not adequately respond to the treatment, which demands further research. Oxidative stress and low-grade inflammation are closely associated processes that play a critical role in the development of DR. Retinal cells communicate with each other or with another one, using cell junctions, adhesion contacts, and secreted soluble factors that can act in neighboring or long-distance cells. Another mechanism of cell communication is via secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs), through exchange of material. Here, we review the current knowledge on deregulation of cell-to-cell communication through EVs, discussing the changes in miRNA expression profiling in body fluids and their role in the development of DR. Thereafter, current and promising therapeutic agents for preventing the progression of DR will be discussed.

miR-185 inhibits prostate cancer angiogenesis induced by the nodal/ALK4 pathway

Background

Inhibition of angiogenesis in prostatic cancer could be a brand-new method to suppress tumour progression. Nodal/ALK4 has been associated with vascularization in many cancers. However, the relationship between and role of Nodal/ALK4 and miR-185 in human prostatic cancer is still unknown.

Methods

Prostatic cancer DU145 cells and LNCaP cells were used to investigate the angiogenic effect induced by Nodal and the anti-angiogenic roles of miR-185. Colony formation assay, MTT assay, transwell assay and tube formation assay were used to explore cell proliferation, migration and tube-forming ability, respectively. A luciferase reporter assay confirmed the binding relationship between miR-185 and ALK4. The expression levels of miR-185, ALK4 and VEGF were detected by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. The effects of miR-185 and Nodal in prostate cancer were also investigated in animal experiments.

Results

VEGF expression was increased in DU145 cells and LNCaP cells after Nodal incubation, and Nodal activated the proliferation ability of prostatic cancer cells and the migration and tube-forming ability of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), which were all inhibited by treatment with the Nodal inhibitor SB431524. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase assay were used to verify miR-185 as a target of ALK4. Prostatic cancer cell proliferation was inhibited by overexpression of miR-185, which was shown to regulate the migration and angiogenesis of HUVECs by targeting ALK4 for suppression. miR-185 also showed a significant inverse correlation with Nodal treatment and reversed the angiogenic effects induced by Nodal. More importantly, for the first time, xenograft experiments indicated that overexpression of miR-185 suppressed tumour development.

Conclusion

The Nodal/ALK4 pathway is important in the angiogenesis of prostate cancer and can be inhibited by targeting miR-185 to downregulate ALK4. These findings provide a new perspective on the mechanism of prostate cancer formation.

Thermal cues drive plasticity of desiccation resistance in montane salamanders with implications for climate change

Organisms rely upon external cues to avoid detrimental conditions during environmental change. Rapid water loss, or desiccation, is a universal threat for terrestrial plants and animals, especially under climate change, but the cues that facilitate plastic responses to avoid desiccation are unclear. We integrate acclimation experiments with gene expression analyses to identify the cues that regulate resistance to water loss at the physiological and regulatory level in a montane salamander (Plethodon metcalfi). Here we show that temperature is an important cue for developing a desiccation-resistant phenotype and might act as a reliable cue for organisms across the globe. Gene expression analyses consistently identify regulation of stem cell differentiation and embryonic development of vasculature. The temperature-sensitive blood vessel development suggests that salamanders regulate water loss through the regression and regeneration of capillary beds in the skin, indicating that tissue regeneration may be used for physiological purposes beyond replacing lost limbs.

miR-185 silencing promotes the progression of atherosclerosis via targeting stromal interaction molecule 1

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. microRNAs play a key role in gene regulation in the formation and development of atherosclerotic plaques. Herein, the role and target gene of miR-185 in AS were explored.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cell viability, migration and invasion were examined by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) and transwell assay. The relative luciferase activity was measured by luciferase reporter assay. The levels of miR-185, STIM1, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloprotein-9 (MMP-9) were evaluated by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and Western blot.

RESULTS

The results revealed that ox-LDL decreased miR-185 expression, and enhanced STIM1 expression in MOVAS cells, as well promoted cell viability, migration and invasion. 3'-UTR of STIM1 contained miR-185 binding site according to the Targetscan. miR-185 silencing or STIM1 overexpression promoted the viability, migration and invasion of ox-LDL-induced MOVAS cells. miR-185 overexpression or STIM1 silencing had the opposite effect. Besides, miR-185 silencing up-regulated the levels of VEGF and MMP-9 in vitro, and increased the lesions of arterial wall tissues and STIM1 positive rate in vivo. However, STIM1 silencing reversed these effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Sum up, STIM1 was a potential target gene of miR-185 in AS. Knockdown of miR-185 facilitated the progression of AS through enhancing cell proliferation, migration and invasion via targeting STIM1. The research provides a novel view of miR-185/STIM1 axis function in AS development, and this targeting method may prevent and treat AS.

Endogenous reduction of miR-185 accelerates cardiac function recovery in mice following myocardial infarction via targeting of cathepsin K

Angiogenesis is critical for re‐establishing the blood supply to the surviving myocardium after myocardial infarction (MI) in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). MicroRNAs are recognised as important epigenetic regulators of endothelial function. The aim of this study was to determine the roles of microRNAs in angiogenesis. Eighteen circulating microRNAs including miR‐185‐5p were differently expressed in plasma from patients with ACS by high‐throughput RNA sequencing. The expressional levels of miR‐185‐5p were dramatically reduced in hearts isolated from mice following MI and cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) under hypoxia, as determined by fluorescence in situ hybridisation and quantitative RT‐PCR. Evidence from computational prediction and luciferase reporter gene activity indicated that cathepsin K (CatK) mRNA is a target of miR‐185‐5p. In HUVECs, miR‐185‐5p mimics inhibited cell proliferations, migrations and tube formations under hypoxia, while miR‐185‐5p inhibitors performed the opposites. Further, the inhibitory effects of miR‐185‐5p up‐regulation on cellular functions of HUVECs were abolished by CatK gene overexpression, and adenovirus‐mediated CatK gene silencing ablated these enhancive effects in HUVECs under hypoxia. In vivo studies indicated that gain‐function of miR‐185‐5p by agomir infusion down‐regulated CatK gene expression, impaired angiogenesis and delayed the recovery of cardiac functions in mice following MI. These actions of miR‐185‐5p agonists were mirrored by in vivo knockdown of CatK in mice with MI. Endogenous reductions of miR‐185‐5p in endothelial cells induced by hypoxia increase CatK gene expression to promote angiogenesis and to accelerate the recovery of cardiac function in mice following MI.

Circulating miR-126 and miR-130a levels correlate with lower disease risk, disease severity, and reduced inflammatory cytokine levels in acute ischemic stroke patients

To investigate the correlations of five angiogenesis-related miRNA (miR-126, miR-130a, miR-222, miR-218, and miR-185) expression levels with risk, severity, and inflammatory cytokines levels in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients. A total of 148 AIS patients and 148 age- and gender-matched controls were consecutively enrolled. Blood samples were collected from AIS patients and controls, and plasma was separated for miRNAs and cytokine level detection. Plasma levels of miRNAs were evaluated by real-time qPCR method, and inflammatory cytokine levels were detected using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Plasma miR-126 and miR-130a expression levels in AIS patients were lower than those of controls, while the levels of miR-222, miR-218, and miR-185 were elevated in AIS patients compared with controls. After pooling the five miRNA expression levels together, the area under the curve (AUC) for predicting AIS risk was 0.840 (95% CI 0.795-0.885) with a sensitivity of 83.8% and a specificity of 69.6% at the best cut-off point. Plasma miR-126 (r = - 0.402, P < 0.001) and miR-130a (r = - 0.161, P = 0.050) levels were negatively correlated with NIHSS scores, while plasma miR-218 level was positively correlated with NIHSS scores (r = 0.471, P < 0.001). Most importantly, plasma miR-126 expression was negatively correlated with TNF-α (r = - 0.168, P = 0.041), IL-1β (r = - 0.246, P = 0.003), and IL-6 (r = - 0.147, P = 0.035) levels, while miR-130a expression was negatively correlated with TNF-α (r = - 0.287, P < 0.001), IL-1β (r = - 0.168, P = 0.041), and IL-6 (r = - 0.239, P = 0.003) expression levels and positively associated with IL-10 level (r = 0.261, P = 0.001). Circulating miR-126 and miR-130a levels correlate with lower disease risk, decreased disease severity, and reduced inflammatory cytokine levels in AIS patients.

Endothelial cell activation is attenuated by everolimus via transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms after drug-eluting coronary stenting

We previously found higher level of endothelial cell (EC) activation in patients who suffered from in-stent restenosis after bare-metal stenting compared to subjects who underwent drug-eluting stenting (DES) showing no complications. Here we investigated the potential transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms by which everolimus attenuated EC activation after DES. We studied the effect of everolimus on E-selectin (SELE) and VCAM1 mRNA levels when human coronary artery (HCAECs) and human umbilical vein ECs were challenged with recombinant TNF-α (100 ng/mL) for 1–24 hours in the presence or absence of everolimus using 0.5 μM concentration locally maintained by DES. EC activation was evaluated via the levels of IL-1β and IL-6 mRNAs with miR-155 expression by RT-qPCR as well as the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-κB) detected by fluorescence microscopy. To investigate the transcriptional regulation of E-selectin and VCAM-1, TNF-α-induced enhancer RNA (eRNA) expression at p65-bound enhancers in the neighboring genomic regions of SELE and VCAM1 genes, including SELE_-11Kb and VCAM1_-10Kb, were measured in HCAECs. Mature and precursor levels of E-selectin and VCAM-1 repressor miR-181b were quantified to analyze the post-transcriptional regulation of these genes in HCAECs. Circulating miR-181b was analyzed in plasma samples of stented subjects by stem-loop RT-qPCR. TNF-α highly elevated E-selectin and VCAM-1 expression at transcriptional level in ECs. Levels of mature, pre- and pri-miR-181b were repressed in ECs by TNF-α, while everolimus acted as a negative regulator of EC activation via inhibited translocation of NF-κB p65 subunit into cell nuclei, lowered eRNA expression at SELE and VCAM1 genes-associated enhancers and modulated expression of their post-transcriptional repressor miR-181b. Significant negative correlation was observed between plasma miR-181b and soluble E-selectin and VCAM-1 in patients. In conclusion, everolimus attenuates EC activation via reduced NF-κB p65 translocation causing decreased E-selectin and VCAM-1 expression at transcriptional and post-transcriptional level after DES.

Circulating pro-angiogenic and anti-angiogenic microRNA expressions in patients with acute ischemic stroke and their association with disease severity

The main objectives of this study are to evaluate 28 selected pro-angiogenic and anti-angiogenic microRNA (miRNA) expressions in plasma of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients and controls and to assess the correlations of these miRNAs with risk and severity of AIS. In the exploring stage, 10 AIS patients and 10 controls with vascular risk factors were enrolled. And in the validating stage, 106 AIS patients and 110 controls with the same eligibility were recruited. Blood samples were collected from participants within 24 h post the onset of symptoms, and plasma levels of miRNAs were evaluated by the qPCR method. In the exploring stage, 11 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEM) were identified and included into the validating stage. In the validating stage, the expression of miR-126, miR-130a, and miR-378 in plasma declined in the AIS patients; however, miR-222, miR-218, and miR-185 plasma levels were elevated. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis disclosed that miR-126, miR-130a, miR-222, miR-218, and miR-185 were independent predicting factors for AIS. When these five DEMs were combined together, they presented a good diagnostic value with an area under curve (AUC) value of 0.767 (95% CI 0.705-0.829), sensitivity of 87.7%, and specificity of 54.5% at best cutoff point. Additionally, miR-126, miR-378, miR-101, miR-222, miR-218, and miR-206 were associated with National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score. Circulating miR-126, miR-130a, miR-222, miR-218, and miR-185 could be served as promising and independent biomarkers for risk of AIS, and miR-126, miR-378, miR-222, miR-101, miR-218, and miR-206 could be used for disease severity management of AIS.

Changing calcium: CRAC channel (STIM and Orai) expression, splicing, and posttranslational modifiers

A wide variety of cellular function depends on the dynamics of intracellular Ca(2+) signals. Especially for relatively slow and lasting processes such as gene expression, cell proliferation, and often migration, cells rely on the store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) pathway, which is particularly prominent in immune cells. SOCE is initiated by the sensor proteins (STIM1, STIM2) located within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) registering the Ca(2+) concentration within the ER, and upon its depletion, cluster and trap Orai (Orai1-3) proteins located in the plasma membrane (PM) into ER-PM junctions. These regions become sites of highly selective Ca(2+) entry predominantly through Orai1-assembled channels, which, among other effector functions, is necessary for triggering NFAT translocation into the nucleus. What is less clear is how the spatial and temporal spread of intracellular Ca(2+) is shaped and regulated by differential expression of the individual SOCE genes and their splice variants, their heteromeric combinations and pre- and posttranslational modifications. This review focuses on principle mechanisms regulating expression, splicing, and targeting of Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) (CRAC) channels.