Photoredox Organic Synthesis Employing Heterogeneous Photocatalysts with Emphasis on Halide Perovskite

Recent progress of metal halide perovskite materials in heterogeneous photocatalytic organic reactions

Photocatalytic technology is widely regarded as an important way to utilize solar energy and achieve carbon neutrality, which has attracted considerable attentions in various fields over the past decades. Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) are recognized as "superstar" materials due to their exceptional photoelectric properties, readily accessible and tunable structure, which made them intensively studied in solar cells, light-emitting diodes, and solar energy conversion fields. Since 2018, increased attention has been focused on applying the MHPs as a heterogeneous visible light photocatalyst in catalyzing organic synthesis reactions. In this review, we present an overview of photocatalytic technology and principles of heterogeneous photocatalysis before delving into the structural characteristics, stability, and classifications of MHPs. We then focus on recent developments of MHPs in photocatalyzing various organic synthesis reactions, such as oxidation, cyclization, C-C coupling etc., based on their classifications and reported reaction types. Finally, we discuss the main limitations and prospects regarding the application of metal halide perovskites in organic synthesis.

Charge Transfer from Quantum-Confined 0D, 1D, and 2D Nanocrystals

The properties of colloidal quantum-confined semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs), including zero-dimensional (0D) quantum dots, 1D nanorods, 2D nanoplatelets, and their heterostructures, can be tuned through their size, dimensionality, and material composition. In their photovoltaic and photocatalytic applications, a key step is to generate spatially separated and long-lived electrons and holes by interfacial charge transfer. These charge transfer properties have been extensively studied recently, which is the subject of this Review. The Review starts with a summary of the electronic structure and optical properties of 0D-2D nanocrystals, followed by the advances in wave function engineering, a novel way to control the spatial distribution of electrons and holes, through their size, dimension, and composition. It discusses the dependence of NC charge transfer on various parameters and the development of the Auger-assisted charge transfer model. Recent advances in understanding multiple exciton generation, decay, and dissociation are also discussed, with an emphasis on multiple carrier transfer. Finally, the applications of nanocrystal-based systems for photocatalysis are reviewed, focusing on the photodriven charge separation and recombination processes that dictate the function and performance of these materials. The Review ends with a summary and outlook of key remaining challenges and promising future directions in the field.

Surface-Engineered Cesium Lead Bromide Perovskite Nanocrystals for Enabling Photoreduction Activity

In recent years, colloidal lead halide perovskite (LHP) nanocrystals (NCs) have exhibited such intriguing light absorption properties to be contemplated as promising candidates for photocatalytic conversions. However, for effective photocatalysis, the light harvesting system needs to be stable under the reaction conditions propaedeutic to a specific transformation. Unlike photoinduced oxidative reaction pathways, photoreductions with LHP NCs are challenging due to their scarce compatibility with common hole scavengers like amines and alcohols. In this contribution, it is investigated the potential of CsPbBr3 NCs protected by a suitably engineered bidentate ligand for the photoreduction of quinone species. Using an in situ approach for the construction of the passivating agent and a halide excess environment, quantum-confined nanocubes (average edge length = 6.0 ± 0.8 nm) are obtained with a low ligand density (1.73 ligand/nm2) at the NC surface. The bifunctional adhesion of the engineered ligand boosts the colloidal stability of the corresponding NCs, preserving their optical properties also in the presence of an amine excess. Despite their relatively short exciton lifetime (τAV = 3.7 ± 0.2 ns), these NCs show an efficient fluorescence quenching in the presence of the selected electron accepting quinones (1,4-naphthoquinone, 9,10-phenanthrenequinone, and 9,10-anthraquinone). All of these aspects demonstrate the suitability of the NCs for an efficient photoreduction of 1,4-naphthoquinone to 1,4-dihydroxynaphthalene in the presence of triethylamine as a hole scavenger. This chemical transformation is impracticable with conventionally passivated LHP NCs, thereby highlighting the potential of the surface functionalization in this class of nanomaterials for exploring new photoinduced reactivities.

Structural Modification Strategies, Interfacial Charge-Carrier Dynamics, and Solar Energy Conversion Applications of Organic-Inorganic Halide Perovskite Photocatalysts

Over the past few decades, organic-inorganic halide perovskites (OIHPs) as novel photocatalyst materials have attracted intensive attention for an impressive variety of photocatalytic applications due to their excellent photophysical (chemical) properties. Regarding practical application and future commercialization, the air-water stability and photocatalytic performance of OIHPs need to be further improved. Accordingly, studying modification strategies and interfacial interaction mechanisms is crucial. In this review, the current progress in the development and photocatalytic fundamentals of OIHPs is summarized. Furthermore, the structural modification strategies of OIHPs, including dimensionality control, heterojunction design, encapsulation techniques, and so on for the enhancement of charge-carrier transfer and the enlargement of long-term stability, are elucidated. Subsequently, the interfacial mechanisms and charge-carrier dynamics of OIHPs during the photocatalytic process are systematically specified and classified via diverse photophysical and electrochemical characterization methods, such as time-resolved photoluminescence measurements, ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements, transient photocurrent densities, and so forth. Eventually, various photocatalytic applications of OIHPs, including hydrogen evolution, CO2 reduction, pollutant degradation, and photocatalytic conversion of organic matter.

CsPbBr3 Perovskite Nanocrystals for Photocatalytic [3+2] Cycloaddition

Visible-light-induced halide-exchange between halide perovskite and organohalide solvents has been studied in which photoinduced electron transfer from CsPbBr3 nanocrystals (NCs) to dihalomethane solvent molecules produces halide anions via reductive dissociation, followed by a spontaneous anion-exchange. Photogenerated holes in this process are less focused. Here, for CsPbBr3 in dibromomethane (DBM), we discover that Br radical (Br⋅) is a key intermediate resulting from the hole oxidation. We successfully trapped Br⋅ with reported methods and found that Br⋅ is continuously generated in DBM under visible light irradiation, hence imperative for catalytic reaction design. Continuous Br⋅ formation within this halide-exchange process is active for photocatalytic [3+2] cycloaddition for vinylcyclopentane synthesis, a privileged scaffold in medicinal chemistry, with good yield and rationalized diastereoselectivity. The NC photocatalyst is highly recyclable due to Br-based self-healing, leading to a particularly economic and neat heterogeneous reaction where the solvent DBM also acts as a co-catalyst in perovskite photocatalysis. Halide perovskites, notable for efficient solar energy conversion, are demonstrated as exceptional photocatalysts for Br radical-mediated [3+2] cycloaddition. We envisage such perovskite-induced Br radical strategy may serve as a powerful chemical tool for developing valuable halogen radical-involved reactions.

Strategies for improving the stability of perovskite for photocatalysis: A review of recent progress

Photocatalysis is currently a hot research field, which provides promising processes to produce green energy sources and other useful products, thus eventually benefiting carbon emission reduction and leading to a low-carbon future. The development and application of stable and efficient photocatalytic materials is one of the main technical bottlenecks in the field of photocatalysis. Perovskite has excellent performance in the fields of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR), organic synthesis and pollutant degradation due to its unique structure, flexibility and resulting excellent photoelectric and catalytic properties. The stability problems caused by perovskite's susceptibility to environmental influences hinder its further application in the field of photocatalysis. Therefore, this paper innovatively summarizes and analyzes the existing methods and strategies to improve the stability of perovskite in the field of photocatalysis. Specifically, (i) component engineering, (ii) morphological control, (iii) hybridization and encapsulation are thought to improve the stability of perovskites while improving photocatalytic efficiency. Finally, the challenges and prospects of perovskite photocatalysts are discussed, which provides constructive thinking for the potential application of perovskite photocatalysts.

CsPbBr3 Nanocrystals as Efficient Photocatalysts for Dehydrohalogenation: Toward Environmentally Friendly Trichloroethylene Synthesis

The demand for a benign alternative to energy-intensive industrial chemical transformations is critical. Lead halide perovskites have emerged as promising candidates due to their unique optoelectronic properties, including high absorption coefficients in the visible region, tunable band gaps, and long charge carrier-diffusion lengths. In this study, we present a model reaction to showcase the photocatalytic utility of perovskite nanocrystals (NCs). Specifically, we demonstrate the synthesis of trichloroethylene (TCEt) from 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane (TCE) using CsPbBr3 NCs under white light illumination. The band-edge positions of the NCs and the redox potential of TCE enable efficient electron transfer for C-Cl bond activation. Furthermore, while ensuring operational stability, CsPbBr3 NCs undergo light-controlled modification, leading to the formation of mixed-halide perovskite (CsPbBrxCl3-x) NCs during the reaction. This procedure yields a mixed-halide perovskite that maintains stability while containing the desired halide content. Additionally, the reaction produces HBr as a byproduct, serving as a self-cleaning technique to eliminate excess Br- ions from the solution. Ultimately, we achieve nearly 100% conversion of CsPbBr3 to pure CsPbCl3 NCs, with a full width at half-maximum of approximately 11.2 nm. Our clean and efficient approach to synthesizing TCEt using perovskite NCs provides interesting insights into violet light-emitting diode (LED) fabrication and color patterning. This study highlights the promising potential of perovskite materials for sustainable chemical transformations and optoelectronic applications.

Visible-Light Photocatalytic Highly Selective Oxidation of Alcohols into Carbonyl Compounds by CsPbBr3 Perovskite

Conversion of alcohols into corresponding carbonyl compounds through an oxidation reaction with high conversion and selectivity simultaneously under mild conditions still remains a great challenge. Herein, a cost-effective and highly efficient photocatalytic protocol for selective oxidation of alcohols was developed using CsPbBr3 perovskite as a heterogeneous photocatalyst, which afforded aldehydes/ketones exclusively with a yield of 99% at ambient temperature under an air atmosphere. Moreover, the photocatalyst can be recycled at least 5 times without a significant decrease in catalytic activity. The detailed reaction mechanism was investigated by a series of quenching experiments, including Stern-Volmer experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis as well as DFT calculations.

Chiral Perovskite Nanocrystals for Asymmetric Reactions: A Highly Enantioselective Strategy for Photocatalytic Synthesis of N-C Axially Chiral Heterocycles

Catalytic approaches to generate enantiospecific chiral centers are the major premise of modern organic chemistry. Heterogeneous catalysis is responsible for the vast majority of chemical transformations, yet the direct employment of chiral solid catalysts for asymmetric synthesis is mostly overlooked. Here, we demonstrated that a heterogeneous metal-halide perovskite nanocrystal (NC) catalyst is active for asymmetric organic synthesis under visible-light activation. Chiral 1-phenylethylamine (PEA)-hybridized perovskite PEA/CsPbBr3 NC photocatalysts exhibit an enantioselective (up to 99% enantiomer excess, ee) avenue to produce N-C axially chiral N-heterocycles, i.e., N-arylindoles from N-arylamine photo-oxidation. Mechanistic investigation indicated a discriminated prochiral binding of the N-arylamine substrates onto the chiral-NC surface with ca. -2.4 kcal/mol enantiodifferentiation. Our perovskite NC heterogeneous catalytic system not only demonstrates a promising strategy to address the long-term challenges in atroposelective pharmaceutical scaffold synthesis but also paves the road to directly employ chiral solids for asymmetric synthesis.

Recent developments in lead-free bismuth-based halide perovskite nanomaterials for heterogeneous photocatalysis under visible light

Halide perovskite materials, especially lead-based perovskites, have been widely used for optoelectronic and catalytic applications. However, the high toxicity of the lead element is a major concern that directs the research work toward lead-free halide perovskites, which could utilize bismuth as a promising candidate. Until now, the replacement of lead by bismuth in perovskites has been well studied by designing bismuth-based halide perovskite (BHP) nanomaterials with versatile physical-chemical properties, which are emerging in various application fields, especially heterogeneous photocatalysis. In this mini-review, we present a brief overview of recent progress in BHP nanomaterials for photocatalysis under visible light. The synthesis and physical-chemical properties of BHP nanomaterials have been comprehensively summarized, including zero-dimensional, two-dimensional nanostructures and hetero-architectures. Later, we introduce the photocatalytic applications of these novel BHP nanomaterials with visible-light response, improved charge separation/transport and unique catalytic sites. Due to advanced nano-morphologies, a well-designed electronic structure and an engineered surface chemical micro-environment, BHP nanomaterials demonstrate enhanced photocatalytic performance for hydrogen generation, CO₂ reduction, organic synthesis and pollutant removal. Finally, the challenges and future research directions of BHP nanomaterials for photocatalysis are discussed.

Photocatalytic direct borylation of carboxylic acids

The preparation of high value-added boronic acids from cheap and plentiful carboxylic acids is desirable. To date, the decarboxylative borylation of carboxylic acids is generally realized through the extra step synthesized redox-active ester intermediate or in situ generated carboxylic acid covalent derivatives above 150 °C reaction temperature. Here, we report a direct decarboxylative borylation method of carboxylic acids enabled by visible-light catalysis and that does not require any extra stoichiometric additives or synthesis steps. This operationally simple process produces CO₂ and proceeds under mild reaction conditions, in terms of high step economy and good functional group compatibility. A guanidine-based biomimetic active decarboxylative mechanism is proposed and rationalized by mechanistic studies. The methodology reported herein should see broad application extending beyond borylation.

Perovskite Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction or Photoredox Organic Transformation?

Metal-halide perovskites have been explored as photocatalysts for CO₂ reduction. We report that perovskite photocatalytic CO₂ reduction in organic solvents is likely problematic. Instead, the detected products (i.e., CO) likely result from a photoredox organic transformation involving the solvent. Our observations have been validated using isotopic labeling experiments, band energy analysis, and new control experiments. We designed a typical perovskite photocatalytic setup in organic solvents that led to CO production of up to ≈1000 μmol g^-1  h^-1 . CO₂ reduction in organic solvents must be studied with extra care because photoredox organic transformations can produce orders of magnitude higher rate of CO or CH₄ than is typical for CO₂ reduction routes. Though CO₂ reduction is not likely to occur, in situ CO generation is extremely fast. Hence a suitable system can be established for challenging organic reactions that use CO as a feedstock but exploit the solvent as a CO surrogate.

Energy Versus Electron Transfer: Managing Excited-State Interactions in Perovskite Nanocrystal-Molecular Hybrids

Energy and electron transfer processes in light harvesting assemblies dictate the outcome of the overall light energy conversion process. Halide perovskite nanocrystals such as CsPbBr₃ with relatively high emission yield and strong light absorption can transfer singlet and triplet energy to surface-bound acceptor molecules. They can also induce photocatalytic reduction and oxidation by selectively transferring electrons and holes across the nanocrystal interface. This perspective discusses key factors dictating these excited-state pathways in perovskite nanocrystals and the fundamental differences between energy and electron transfer processes. Spectroscopic methods to decipher between these complex photoinduced pathways are presented. A basic understanding of the fundamental differences between the two excited deactivation processes (charge and energy transfer) and ways to modulate them should enable design of more efficient light harvesting assemblies with semiconductor and molecular systems.

CdS Quantum Dots as Potent Photoreductants for Organic Chemistry Enabled by Auger Processes

Strong reducing agents (<-2.0 V vs saturated calomel electrode (SCE)) enable a wide array of useful organic chemistry, but suffer from a variety of limitations. Stoichiometric metallic reductants such as alkali metals and SmI₂ are commonly employed for these reactions; however, considerations including expense, ease of use, safety, and waste generation limit the practicality of these methods. Recent approaches utilizing energy from multiple photons or electron-primed photoredox catalysis have accessed reduction potentials equivalent to Li⁰ and shown how this enables selective transformations of aryl chlorides via aryl radicals. However, in some cases, low stability of catalytic intermediates can limit turnover numbers. Herein, we report the ability of CdS nanocrystal quantum dots (QDs) to function as strong photoreductants and present evidence that a highly reducing electron is generated from two consecutive photoexcitations of CdS QDs with intermediate reductive quenching. Mechanistic experiments suggest that Auger recombination, a photophysical phenomenon known to occur in photoexcited anionic QDs, generates transient thermally excited electrons to enable the observed reductions. Using blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and sacrificial amine reductants, aryl chlorides and phosphate esters with reduction potentials up to -3.4 V vs SCE are photoreductively cleaved to afford hydrodefunctionalized or functionalized products. In contrast to small-molecule catalysts, QDs are stable under these conditions and turnover numbers up to 47 500 have been achieved. These conditions can also effect other challenging reductions, such as tosylate protecting group removal from amines, debenzylation of benzyl-protected alcohols, and reductive ring opening of cyclopropane carboxylic acid derivatives.

Lead-Free Cs2 AgSbCl6 Double Perovskite Nanocrystals for Effective Visible-Light Photocatalytic C-C Coupling Reactions

Lead halide perovskite nanocrystals (NCs) have been regarded as a promising potential photocatalyst, owing to their high molar extinction coefficient, low economic cost, adjustable light absorption range, and ample surface active sites. However, the toxicity of lead and its inherent instability in water and polar solvents could hinder their wide application in the field of photocatalysis. Herein, with α-alkylation of aldehydes as a model reaction, C-C bond-forming is demonstrated in high yield by using lead-free double perovskite Cs₂ AgSbCl₆ NCs under visible light irradiation. Moreover, the photocatalytic performance is simply improved by rational control of the surface ligands and a reaction mechanism involving a radical intermediate is proposed. Although the stability requires further amelioration, the results indicate the enormous potential of lead-free double perovskite NC photocatalysts for organic synthesis and chemical transformations.

Au–Pd@ZnO alloy nanoparticles: a promising heterogeneous photocatalyst toward decarboxylative trifluoromethylation under visible-light irradiation

Au–Pd@ZnO alloy nanoparticles have promising potential as heterogeneous photocatalysts for decarboxylative trifluoromethylation reactions under visible light irradiation.

Perovskite as Recyclable Photocatalyst for Annulation Reaction of N-Sulfonyl Ketimines

A sustainable and cost-effective manner for the photocatalytic annulation reaction of N-sulfonyl ketimines with N-arylglycines to synthesize imidazolidine-fused sulfamidates (31 examples) by employing CsPbBr₃ as a heterogeneous photocatalyst has been developed. The catalyst CsPbBr₃ can be simply recovered from the reaction mixture and reused at least five times without an obvious reduction in its photocatalytic reactivity, exhibiting a high catalyst economic feature.

Photoinduced efficient synthesis of cyanoalkylsulfonylated oxindoles via sulfur dioxide insertion

A visible-light-promoted radical cascade reaction of N-arylacrylamide and cyclobutanone oxime esters with sulfur dioxide insertion is established. Mainly through the exploration of the visible light wavelength, it is found that the light source has a certain influence on the formation of cyanoalkylsulfonylated oxindoles, furnishing a range of sulfones in good to excellent yields. This protocol presents good functional group compatibility and does not require transition metals, photosensitizers, external bases, or oxidants.

Visible-Light-Mediated Oxidative Amidation of Aldehydes by Using Magnetic CdS Quantum Dots as a Photocatalyst

A magnetic CdS quantum dot (Fe₃ O₄ /polydopamine (PDA)/CdS) was synthesized through a facile and convenient method from inexpensive starting materials. Characterization of the prepared catalyst was performed by means of FTIR spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, TEM, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and vibrating-sample magnetometer techniques. Fe₃ O₄ /PDA/CdS was found to be a highly active photocatalyst for the amidation of aromatic aldehydes by using air as a clean oxidant under mild conditions. The photocatalyst can be recovered by magnetic separation and successfully reused for five cycles without considerable loss of its catalytic activity.

Emerging Concepts in Carbon Nitride Organic Photocatalysis

Carbon nitrides encompass a class of transition-metal-free materials possessing numerous advantages such as low cost (few Euros per gram), high chemical stability, broad tunability of redox potentials and optical bandgap, recyclability, and a high absorption coefficient (>10⁵  cm^-1 ), which make them highly attractive for application in photoredox catalysis. In this Review, we classify carbon nitrides based on their unique properties, structure, and redox potentials. We summarize recently emerging concepts in heterogeneous carbon nitride photocatalysis, with an emphasis on the synthesis of organic compounds: 1) Illumination-Driven Electron Accumulation in Semiconductors and Exploitation (IDEASE); 2) singlet-triplet intersystem crossing in carbon nitride excited states and related energy transfer; 3) architectures of flow photoreactors; and 4) dual metal/carbon nitride photocatalysis. The objective of this Review is to provide a detailed overview regarding innovative research in carbon nitride photocatalysis focusing on these topics.