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Hu Z, Feng L, Jiang Q, Wang W, Tan B, Tang X, Yin Y. Intestinal tryptophan metabolism in disease prevention and swine production. ANIMAL NUTRITION (ZHONGGUO XU MU SHOU YI XUE HUI) 2023; 15:364-374. [PMID: 38058568 PMCID: PMC10695851 DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2023.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Tryptophan (Trp) is an essential amino acid that cannot be synthesized by animals. It has been characterized into two different isomers, levorotation-Trp (L-Trp) and dextrorotation-Trp (D-Trp), based on their distinct molecule orientation. Intestinal epithelial cells and gut microbiota are involved in metabolizing L-Trp in the gut via the activation of the kynurenine, serotonin, and indole pathways. However, knowledge regarding D-Trp metabolism in the gut remains unclear. In this review, we briefly update the current understanding of intestinal L/D-Trp metabolism and the function of their metabolites in modulating the gut physiology and diseases. Finally, we summarize the effects of Trp nutrition on swine production at different stages, including growth performance in weaned piglets and growing pigs, as well as the reproduction performance in sows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenguo Hu
- Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Science, Changsha, Hunan 410125, China
| | - Luya Feng
- Animal Nutritional Genome and Germplasm Innovation Research Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Qian Jiang
- Animal Nutritional Genome and Germplasm Innovation Research Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Wenliang Wang
- Animal Nutritional Genome and Germplasm Innovation Research Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Bi'e Tan
- Animal Nutritional Genome and Germplasm Innovation Research Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Xiongzhuo Tang
- Animal Nutritional Genome and Germplasm Innovation Research Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Yulong Yin
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, National Center of Technology Innovation for Synthetic Biology, Tianjin 300308, China
- Animal Nutritional Genome and Germplasm Innovation Research Center, College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
- Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Science, Changsha, Hunan 410125, China
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Monfared YK, Pedrazzo AR, Mahmoudian M, Caldera F, Zakeri-Milani P, Valizadeh H, Cavalli R, Matencio A, Trotta F. Oral supplementation of solvent-free kynurenic acid/cyclodextrin nanosponges complexes increased its bioavailability. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2023; 222:113101. [PMID: 36529037 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.113101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Many nutraceuticals present problems due to their poor water solubility or stability, which prevents the final bioactivity achievement. For that reason, the oral administration of KYNA complexed with HPβ-CD and βNS-CDI nanosponges was evaluated in mice. The solvent-free technology was used to prepare the complexes in a complete comparison between kneading in ball milling and classical inclusion complex preparation. The solvent-free ones showed higher strength and efficiency with ball milling, considerably reducing time. A 50 mg KYNA/kg/day dosage was orally administered in formulations showing a higher bioavailability when the nutraceutical was complexed with βNS-CDI compared to HPβ-CD and free KYNA, respectively. Several antioxidant statuses demonstrated a higher global antioxidant level perfectly related to bioavailability. Finally, the formulation of KYNA reduced the temporal oxidative stress damage in the kidney and liver, making βNS-CDI the best formulation. These results suggest an important future application of cyclodextrin-based nanosponges for the oral delivery of nutraceuticals and their stabilization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alberto Rubin Pedrazzo
- Dipartimento Di Chimica and NIS, Università di Torino, via P. Giuria 7, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | | | - Fabrizio Caldera
- Dipartimento Di Chimica and NIS, Università di Torino, via P. Giuria 7, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - Parvin Zakeri-Milani
- Liver and Gastrointestinal Diseases Research Centre and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Hadi Valizadeh
- Drug Applied Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Science, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Roberta Cavalli
- Dipartimento di Scienza e tecnologia del farmaco, via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - Adrián Matencio
- Dipartimento Di Chimica and NIS, Università di Torino, via P. Giuria 7, 10125 Torino, Italy.
| | - Francesco Trotta
- Dipartimento Di Chimica and NIS, Università di Torino, via P. Giuria 7, 10125 Torino, Italy.
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Fukushima T, Umino M, Sakamoto T, Onozato M. A review of chromatographic methods for bioactive tryptophan metabolites, kynurenine, kynurenic acid, quinolinic acid, and others, in biological fluids. Biomed Chromatogr 2022; 36:e5308. [PMID: 34978092 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
sKynurenine (KYN) is synthesized from an essential amino acid, tryptophan by tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase or indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase via N-formyl- KYN in vivo. Subsequently, KYN acts as a precursor of some neuroactive metabolites such as kynurenic acid, quinolinic acid, and an important enzyme co-factor, nicotine adenine dinucleotide. These metabolites of tryptophan are a part of the "kynurenine pathway." In addition, KYN functions as an endogenous ligand for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which acts as a transcription factor. The levels of tryptophan metabolites are important for the assessment of the stage of neurological disorders, and hence, have garnered significant interest for clinical diagnosis. In this review, the detection of kynurenine, kynurenic acid, quinolinic acid, and other tryptophan metabolites performed via chromatographic methods such as HPLC using UV absorbance, fluorescence, and chromatographic-mass spectrometric detection is summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Fukushima
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Maho Umino
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Sakamoto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Mayu Onozato
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
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Uekusa S, Onozato M, Sakamoto T, Umino M, Ichiba H, Fukushima T. Fluorimetric determination of the enantiomers of vigabatrin, an antiepileptic drug, by reversed-phase HPLC with a novel diastereomer derivatization reagent. Biomed Chromatogr 2021; 35:e5060. [PMID: 33377241 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Herein, determination of an antiepileptic drug, (±)-vigabatrin (VB), was performed by reversed-phase HPLC with fluorimetric detection using a newly designed and synthesized fluorescence derivatization reagent, 2,5-dioxopyrrolidin-1-yl (4-{[(2-nitrophenyl)sulfonyl]oxy}-6-(3-oxomorpholino)quinoline-2-carbonyl)prolinate [Ns-MOK-(R)- or (S)-Pro-OSu]. During the derivatization of VB with Ns-MOK-(R)-Pro-OSu at 60°C, the nosyl (Ns) group, which was introduced to protect a phenolic hydroxy group, was released within 30 min to produce MOK-(R)-Pro-VB, which was detected fluorimetrically at 448 nm with an excitation wavelength of 333 nm. The VB enantiomers were separated on an octadecylsilica (ODS) column with a resolution value of 5.57, because Ns-MOK-(R)-Pro-OSu bears an optically active D-proline structure. A complete separation of MOK-(R)-Pro-(R)- and -(S)-VB enantiomers was achieved on the ODS column within 40 min using stepwise gradient elution, and the detection limits were ~0.80 and 0.37 pmol on the column, respectively. The proposed HPLC with fluorimetric detection method was successfully used for determining VB enantiomers in VB-spiked human serum following solid-phase extraction with an anion-exchange cartridge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shusuke Uekusa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Mayu Onozato
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Sakamoto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Maho Umino
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hideaki Ichiba
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Takeshi Fukushima
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
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Tanaka M, Bohár Z, Vécsei L. Are Kynurenines Accomplices or Principal Villains in Dementia? Maintenance of Kynurenine Metabolism. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25030564. [PMID: 32012948 PMCID: PMC7036975 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25030564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Worldwide, 50 million people suffer from dementia, a group of symptoms affecting cognitive and social functions, progressing severely enough to interfere with daily life. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) accounts for most of the dementia cases. Pathological and clinical findings have led to proposing several hypotheses of AD pathogenesis, finding a presence of positive feedback loops and additionally observing the disturbance of a branch of tryptophan metabolism, the kynurenine (KYN) pathway. Either causative or resultant of dementia, elevated levels of neurotoxic KYN metabolites are observed, potentially upregulating multiple feedback loops of AD pathogenesis. Memantine is an N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamatergic receptor (NMDAR) antagonist, which belongs to one of only two classes of medications approved for clinical use, but other NMDAR modulators have been explored so far in vain. An endogenous KYN pathway metabolite, kynurenic acid (KYNA), likewise inhibits the excitotoxic NMDAR. Besides its anti-excitotoxicity, KYNA is a multitarget compound that triggers anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Modifying the KYNA level is a potential multitarget strategy to normalize the disturbed KYN pathway and thus to alleviate juxtaposing AD pathogeneses. In this review, the maintenance of KYN metabolism by modifying the level of KYNA is proposed and discussed in search for a novel lead compound against the progression of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Tanaka
- MTA-SZTE, Neuroscience Research Group, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Neurology, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsuzsanna Bohár
- MTA-SZTE, Neuroscience Research Group, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Neurology, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Vécsei
- MTA-SZTE, Neuroscience Research Group, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Neurology, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +36-62-545-351
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Relevance of Alternative Routes of Kynurenic Acid Production in the Brain. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2018; 2018:5272741. [PMID: 29977455 PMCID: PMC5994304 DOI: 10.1155/2018/5272741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The catabolism of tryptophan has gained great importance in recent years due to the fact that the metabolites produced during this process, with neuroactive and redox properties, are involved in physiological and pathological events. One of these metabolites is kynurenic acid (KYNA), which is considered as a neuromodulator since it can interact with NMDA, nicotinic, and GPR35 receptors among others, modulating the release of neurotransmitters as glutamate, dopamine, and acetylcholine. Kynureninate production is attributed to kynurenine aminotransferases. However, in some physiological and pathological conditions, its high production cannot be explained just with kynurenine aminotransferases. This review focuses on the alternative mechanism whereby KYNA can be produced, either from D-amino acids or by means of other enzymes as D-amino acid oxidase or by the participation of free radicals. It is important to mention that an increase in KYNA levels in processes as brain development, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and psychiatric disorders, which share common factors as oxidative stress, inflammation, immune response activation, and participation of gut microbiota that can also be related with the alternative routes of KYNA production, has been observed.
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Iizuka H, Harashima T, Takahashi S, Kuwabara R, Naito Y, Sakamoto T, Onozato M, Ichiba H, Fukushima T. Chromatographic profiles of tryptophan and kynurenine enantiomers derivatized with (S)-4-(3-isothiocyanatopyrrolidin-1-yl)-7-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl)-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole using LC-MS/MS on a triazole-bonded column. Chirality 2017; 29:603-609. [PMID: 28730706 DOI: 10.1002/chir.22726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
d- and l-Tryptophan (Trp) and d- and l-kynurenine (KYN) were derivatized with a chiral reagent, (S)-4-(3-isothiocyanatopyrrolidin-1-yl)-7-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl)-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (DBD-PyNCS), and were separated enantiomerically by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) equipped with a triazole-bonded column (Cosmosil HILIC) using tandem mass spectrometric (MS/MS) detection. Effects of column temperature, salt (HCO2 NH4 ) concentration, and pH of the mobile phase in the enantiomeric separation, followed by MS detection of (S)-DBD-PyNCS-d,l-Trp and -d,l-KYN, were investigated. The mobile phase consisting of CH3 CN/10 mM ammonium formate in H2 O (pH 5.0) (90/10) with a column temperature of 50-60 °C gave satisfactory resolution (Rs) and mass-spectrometric detection. The enantiomeric separation of d,l-Trp and d,l-KYN produced Rs values of 2.22 and 2.13, and separation factors (α) of 1.08 and 1.08, for the Trp and KYN enantiomers, respectively. The proposed LC-MS/MS method provided excellent detection sensitivity of both enantiomers of Trp and KYN (5.1-19 nM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideaki Iizuka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Takahiro Harashima
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Shuhei Takahashi
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Kuwabara
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yoko Naito
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Sakamoto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Mayu Onozato
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hideaki Ichiba
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Takeshi Fukushima
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
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Notarangelo FM, Wang XD, Horning KJ, Schwarcz R. Role of d-amino acid oxidase in the production of kynurenine pathway metabolites from d-tryptophan in mice. J Neurochem 2016; 136:804-814. [PMID: 26661897 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway (KP), the major catabolic route of the essential amino acid l-tryptophan (l-TRP), contains several neuroactive compounds, including kynurenic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), and quinolinic acid (QUIN). The role of the d-enantiomer (d-TRP) in KP metabolism has received little attention so far. d-TRP can be converted to l-TRP by d-amino acid oxidase, and the same enzyme can produce d-kynurenine, a known bioprecursor of KYNA. To analyze these complex metabolic events systematically in vivo, we injected mice with d-TRP (300 mg/kg, i.p.) and examined KP metabolism in the absence or presence of the d-amino acid oxidase inhibitor 3-methylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid (MPC; 100 mg/kg, i.p.,). After 90 min, newly formed l-TRP was recovered in plasma, liver, forebrain, and cerebellum, and MPC prevented its neosynthesis in all tissues. In the same animals, de novo production of d-kynurenine from d-TRP was also observed, but was much higher in the periphery than in the brain. d-TRP administration raised KYNA, 3-HK, and QUIN levels in all tissues examined, and KYNA production from d-TRP was significantly reduced after pre-treatment with MPC. These results indicate that catabolic routes other than those classically ascribed to l-TRP and l-kynurenine can account for the synthesis of KYNA, 3-HK and QUINin vivo. The essential amino acid l-tryptophan is catabolized via the kynurenine pathway (KP). We explored the role of the d-enantiomer in KP metabolism in mice in vivo. We report that d-tryptophan is metabolized in both brain and periphery and converted to KP metabolites, including d-kynurenine and l-kynurenine, kynurenic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine, and quinolinic acid. Pharmacological experiments confirm the involvement of d-amino acid oxidase in these processes. Our results indicate that this enzyme participates in the synthesis of KP metabolites from d-tryptophan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca M Notarangelo
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Xiao-Dan Wang
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kyle J Horning
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Robert Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Blanco Ayala T, Lugo Huitrón R, Carmona Aparicio L, Ramírez Ortega D, González Esquivel D, Pedraza Chaverrí J, Pérez de la Cruz G, Ríos C, Schwarcz R, Pérez de la Cruz V. Alternative kynurenic acid synthesis routes studied in the rat cerebellum. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:178. [PMID: 26041992 PMCID: PMC4435238 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA), an astrocyte-derived, endogenous antagonist of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine and excitatory amino acid receptors, regulates glutamatergic, GABAergic, cholinergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission in several regions of the rodent brain. Synthesis of KYNA in the brain and elsewhere is generally attributed to the enzymatic conversion of L-kynurenine (L-KYN) by kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs). However, alternative routes, including KYNA formation from D-kynurenine (D-KYN) by D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) and the direct transformation of kynurenine to KYNA by reactive oxygen species (ROS), have been demonstrated in the rat brain. Using the rat cerebellum, a region of low KAT activity and high DAAO activity, the present experiments were designed to examine KYNA production from L-KYN or D-KYN by KAT and DAAO, respectively, and to investigate the effect of ROS on KYNA synthesis. In chemical combinatorial systems, both L-KYN and D-KYN interacted directly with peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) and hydroxyl radicals (OH•), resulting in the formation of KYNA. In tissue homogenates, the non-specific KAT inhibitor aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA; 1 mM) reduced KYNA production from L-KYN and D-KYN by 85.1 ± 1.7% and 27.1 ± 4.5%, respectively. Addition of DAAO inhibitors (benzoic acid, kojic acid or 3-methylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid; 5 μM each) attenuated KYNA formation from L-KYN and D-KYN by ~35% and ~66%, respectively. ONOO(-) (25 μM) potentiated KYNA production from both L-KYN and D-KYN, and these effects were reduced by DAAO inhibition. AOAA attenuated KYNA production from L-KYN + ONOO(-) but not from D-KYN + ONOO(-). In vivo, extracellular KYNA levels increased rapidly after perfusion of ONOO(-) and, more prominently, after subsequent perfusion with L-KYN or D-KYN (100 μM). Taken together, these results suggest that different mechanisms are involved in KYNA production in the rat cerebellum, and that, specifically, DAAO and ROS can function as alternative routes for KYNA production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonali Blanco Ayala
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - Rafael Lugo Huitrón
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | | | - Daniela Ramírez Ortega
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - Dinora González Esquivel
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - José Pedraza Chaverrí
- Facultad de Química, Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMéxico D.F., Mexico
| | - Gonzalo Pérez de la Cruz
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departmento de Matemáticas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de MéxicoMéxico D.F., Mexico
| | - Camilo Ríos
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
| | - Robert Schwarcz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA
| | - Verónica Pérez de la Cruz
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, S.S.A.México D.F., Mexico
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Maeta A, Sano M, Fukuwatari T, Funakoshi H, Nakamura T, Shibata K. Contributions of tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase to the conversion of D-tryptophan to nicotinamide analyzed by using tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase-knockout mice. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2014; 78:878-81. [PMID: 25035993 DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2014.905185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the contribution percentage of tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) to the conversion of D-tryptophan to nicotinamide in TDO-knockout mice. The calculated percentage conversions indicated that TDO and IDO oxidized 70 and 30%, respectively, of the dietary L-tryptophan. These results indicate that both TDO and IDO biosynthesize nicotinamide from D-tryptophan and L-tryptophan in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Maeta
- a Department of Nutrition , School of Human Cultures, The University of Shiga Prefecture , Hikone , Japan
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11
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D-Serine metabolism: new insights into the modulation of D-amino acid oxidase activity. Biochem Soc Trans 2013; 41:1551-6. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20130184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Over the years, accumulating evidence has indicated that D-serine represents the main endogenous ligand of NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors. In the brain, the concentration of D-serine stored in cells is defined by the activity of two enzymes: serine racemase (responsible for both the synthesis and degradation) and D-amino acid oxidase (which catalyses D-serine degradation). The present review is focused on human D-amino acid oxidase, discussing the mechanisms involved in modulating enzyme activity and stability, with the aim to substantiate the pivotal role of D-amino acid oxidase in brain D-serine metabolism.
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12
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A method for the determination of D-kynurenine in biological tissues. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9747-54. [PMID: 24158577 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7399-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Revised: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
D-kynurenine (D-KYN), a metabolite of D-tryptophan, can serve as the bioprecursor of kynurenic acid (KYNA) and 3-hydroxykynurenine, two neuroactive compounds that are believed to play a role in the pathophysiology of several neurological and psychiatric diseases. In order to investigate the possible presence of D-KYN in biological tissues, we developed a novel assay based on the conversion of D-KYN to KYNA by purified D-amino acid oxidase (D-AAO). Samples were incubated with D-AAO under optimal conditions for measuring D-AAO activity (100 mM borate buffer, pH 9.0), and newly produced KYNA was detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorimetric detection. The detection limit for D-KYN was 300 fmol, and linearity of the assay was ascertained up to 300 pmol. No assay interference was noted when other D-amino acids, including D-serine and D-aspartate, were present in the incubation mixture at 50-fold higher concentrations than D-KYN. Using this new method, D-KYN was readily detected in the brain, liver, and plasma of mice treated systemically with D-KYN (300 mg/kg). In these experiments, enantioselectivity was confirmed by determining total kynurenine levels in the same samples using a conventional HPLC assay. Availability of a sensitive, specific, and simple method for D-KYN measurement will be instrumental for evaluating whether D-KYN should be considered for a role in physiology and pathology.
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Structure–function relationships in human d-amino acid oxidase. Amino Acids 2012; 43:1833-50. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-012-1345-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Kynurenic acid and 3-hydroxykynurenine production from D-kynurenine in mice. Brain Res 2012; 1455:1-9. [PMID: 22498176 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Revised: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA), an antagonist of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), a generator of reactive oxygen species, are neuroactive metabolites of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation. In the mammalian brain as elsewhere, both compounds derive from a common bioprecursor, L-kynurenine (L-KYN). Recent studies in rats demonstrated that D-kynurenine (D-KYN), a metabolite of the bacterial amino acid D-tryptophan, can also function as a bioprecursor of brain KYNA. We now investigated the conversion of systemically administered D-KYN to KYNA in mice and also explored the possible production of 3-HK in the same animals. Thirty min after an injection of D-KYN or L-KYN (30 mg/kg, i.p.), newly produced KYNA and 3-HK were recovered from plasma, liver, forebrain and cerebellum in all cases. Using a new chiral separation method, 3-HK produced from D-KYN was positively identified as D-3-HK. L-KYN was the more effective precursor of KYNA in all tissues and also exceeded D-KYN as a precursor of brain 3-HK. In contrast, D-KYN was more potent as a precursor of 3-HK in the liver. The production of both KYNA and 3-HK from D-KYN was rapid in all tissues, peaking at 15-30 min following a systemic injection of D-KYN. These results show that biosynthetic routes other than those classically ascribed to L-KYN can account for the synthesis of both KYNA and 3-HK in vivo. This new insight may be of significant physiological or pathological relevance.
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Pérez-de la Cruz V, Amori L, Sathyasaikumar KV, Wang XD, Notarangelo FM, Wu HQ, Schwarcz R. Enzymatic transamination of D-kynurenine generates kynurenic acid in rat and human brain. J Neurochem 2012; 120:1026-35. [PMID: 22224417 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07653.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
In the mammalian brain, the α7 nicotinic and NMDA receptor antagonist kynurenic acid is synthesized by irreversible enzymatic transamination of the tryptophan metabolite l-kynurenine. d-kynurenine, too, serves as a bioprecursor of kynurenic acid in several organs including the brain, but the conversion is reportedly catalyzed through oxidative deamination by d-amino acid oxidase. Using brain and liver tissue homogenates from rats and humans, and conventional incubation conditions for kynurenine aminotransferases, we show here that kynurenic acid production from d-kynurenine, like the more efficient kynurenic acid synthesis from l-kynurenine, is blocked by the aminotransferase inhibitor amino-oxyacetic acid. In vivo, focal application of 100 μM d-kynurenine by reverse microdialysis led to a steady rise in extracellular kynurenic acid in the rat striatum, causing a 4-fold elevation after 2 h. Attesting to functional significance, this increase was accompanied by a 36% reduction in extracellular dopamine. Both of these effects were duplicated by perfusion of 2 μM l-kynurenine. Co-infusion of amino-oxyacetic acid (2 mM) significantly attenuated the in vivo effects of d-kynurenine and essentially eliminated the effects of l-kynurenine. Thus, enzymatic transamination accounts in part for kynurenic acid synthesis from d-kynurenine in the brain. These results are discussed with regard to implications for brain physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Pérez-de la Cruz
- Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Time-course of kynurenic acid concentration in mouse serum following the administration of a novel kynurenic acid analog. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2011; 55:540-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2011.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2010] [Revised: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 02/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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17
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Ishii K, Iizuka H, Ogaya T, Song Z, Fukushima T. Comparative study on kynurenic acid production in the rat striatum by tryptophan enantiomers: An in vivo microdialysis study. Chirality 2011; 23 Suppl 1:E12-5. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.20938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Iizuka H, Ishii K, Hirasa Y, Kubo K, Fukushima T. Fluorescence determination of D- and L-tryptophan concentrations in rat plasma following administration of tryptophan enantiomers using HPLC with pre-column derivatization. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:3208-13. [PMID: 21388898 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2010] [Revised: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Similar to L-tryptophan (L-Trp), D-Trp can be converted to unique metabolites in the mammalian body. In the present study, the difference in the plasma half-life (t(1/2)) between Trp enantiomers was investigated by following the alterations in the plasma concentration of D- or L-Trp after intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of each enantiomer to male Sprague-Dawley rats (100 mg/kg). The investigation was performed using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and pre-column fluorescence derivatization with a chiral fluorescent labeling reagent, R(-)-4-(3-isothiocyanatopyrrolidin-1-yl)-7-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl)-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (R(-)-DBD-PyNCS). The t(1/2) value of D-Trp was significantly smaller than that of L-Trp, suggesting that D-Trp was eliminated from the plasma more rapidly than L-Trp. In addition, a significant increase in the plasma concentration of L-Trp was observed following administration of D-Trp, whereas no D-Trp was detected after L-Trp administration. Furthermore, the increase in the plasma concentration of L-Trp was significantly suppressed by pretreatment with an inhibitor of D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO), 3-methylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid, which suggests that DAAO was involved in the conversion of D-Trp to L-Trp in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideaki Iizuka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, 2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi-shi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan
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Labrie V, Wong AHC, Roder JC. Contributions of the D-serine pathway to schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology 2011; 62:1484-503. [PMID: 21295046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2010] [Revised: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The glutamate neurotransmitter system is one of the major candidate pathways for the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, and increased understanding of the pharmacology, molecular biology and biochemistry of this system may lead to novel treatments. Glutamatergic hypofunction, particularly at the NMDA receptor, has been hypothesized to underlie many of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including psychosis, negative symptoms and cognitive impairment. This review will focus on D-serine, a co-agonist at the NMDA receptor that in combination with glutamate, is required for full activation of this ion channel receptor. Evidence implicating D-serine, NMDA receptors and related molecules, such as D-amino acid oxidase (DAO), G72 and serine racemase (SRR), in the etiology or pathophysiology of schizophrenia is discussed, including knowledge gained from mouse models with altered D-serine pathway genes and from preliminary clinical trials with D-serine itself or compounds modulating the D-serine pathway. Abnormalities in D-serine availability may underlie glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia, and the development of new treatments acting through the D-serine pathway may significantly improve outcomes for many schizophrenia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Labrie
- Krembil Family Epigenetics Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada.
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HARUTA N, IIZUKA H, ISHII K, YOSHIHARA S, ICHIBA H, FUKUSHIMA T. Alteration in the plasma concentration of a DAAO inhibitor, 3-methylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid, in the ketamine-treated rats and the influence on the pharmacokinetics of plasma D-tryptophan. PROCEEDINGS OF THE JAPAN ACADEMY. SERIES B, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2011; 87:641-648. [PMID: 22156410 PMCID: PMC3311015 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.87.641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A determination method for 3-methylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid (MPC), an inhibitor of D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO), in rat plasma was developed by using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The structural isomer of MPC, 3-methylpyrazole-4-carboxylic acid, was used as an internal standard, and the intra- and inter-day accuracies and precisions were satisfactory for the determination of plasma MPC.Next, the LC-MS method was applied to determine the plasma MPC concentration in ketamine (Ket)-treated rats after intraperitoneal administration of MPC (5.0 or 50 mg·kg(-1)). The C(max) value of plasma MPC concentration in the Ket-treated rats was significantly higher than that in the control group when a high dose of MPC (50 mg·kg(-1)) was administered. In addition, it was found that plasma D-tryptophan (D-Trp) concentration in Ket-treated rats administered D-Trp was not significantly increased by MPC, suggesting that the DAAO-inhibitory effect of MPC is attenuated in Ket-treated rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi HARUTA
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hideaki IIZUKA
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kana ISHII
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Shunsuke YOSHIHARA
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hideaki ICHIBA
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Takeshi FUKUSHIMA
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toho University, Chiba, Japan
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Iizuka H, Hirasa Y, Kubo K, Ishii K, Toyo'oka T, Fukushima T. Enantiomeric separation of d,l-tryptophan and d,l-kynurenine by HPLC using pre-column fluorescence derivatization with R(−)-DBD-PyNCS. Biomed Chromatogr 2010; 25:743-7. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.1525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2010] [Revised: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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