Problem-oriented policing for reducing crime and disorder: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis

'Led by Intelligence': A Scoping Review on the Experimental Evaluation of Intelligence-Led Policing

Intelligence-led policing (ILP) was introduced in the 1990s as a proactive approach to policing, but to date, there is a lack of studies that have synthesized and summarized the central characteristics and insights of (quasi-)experimental studies related to ILP. This study aims to address this gap by synthesizing and characterizing the central characteristics of 38 quasi-experimental and experimental studies related to ILP. In this study, a scoping review is conducted on different quasi-experimental and experimental studies that relate to the framework of ILP. It was found that most studies within the domain of ILP focus on testing the crime reduction effects of using spatio-temporal crime intelligence to deploy police resources more efficiently and effectively. However, some studies have combined different types of crime intelligence or used solely offender-related intelligence. Several statistical-methodological challenges were also identified that should be considered when designing experimental research within the domain of ILP. Additionally, most studies focused solely on measuring crime reduction, with few focusing on secondary effects of interventions. The review concludes that future evaluation studies should consider evaluating the use of different types of crime intelligence and establish specific, objective, and realistic criteria for measuring specific performance measures such as crime disruption. Future experimental research within the domain of ILP should consider applying the 3-i model, evaluating each leg of ILP thoroughly. The limitations of the study are also discussed. This review provides valuable insights for future research and development of ILP-related approaches.

Modeling a needs assessment approach for policymakers to investigate, understand, and reduce gun violence

We conducted a needs assessment evaluation as part of a community effort to plan tailored responses to reduce gun violence in a midwestern town. Various data sources were used to analyze factors leading to gun violence. The results guided the creation of evidence-based response strategies. Study findings demonstrate that even in a small town, the nature and drivers of gun violence vary considerably at the micro level and thus should be examined at this level. In this paper, we present the recommendations that followed from our study, not as solutions for other jurisdictions to adopt on their face, but rather as an example of 1) the types of solutions that follow from a thorough analysis of a local problem, and 2) a plethora of potential responses by social institutions. The goal of the paper is to provide an example process for policymakers from jurisdictions of various sizes and locales of the application of a problem-oriented approach to understanding and preventing gun violence. Undertaking a comprehensive, micro-focus to analyze the gun violence problem and its drivers in a jurisdiction provides essential information to guide the formulation of tailored, evidence-based responses.

Police stops to reduce crime: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Police-initiated pedestrian stops have been one of the most widely used crime prevention tactics in modern policing. Proponents have long considered police stops to be an indispensable component of crime prevention efforts, with many holding them responsible for the significant reductions in violent crime observed across major US cities in recent decades. Critics, however, have taken issue with the overuse of pedestrian stops, linking them to worsening mental and physical health, attitudes toward the police, and elevated delinquent behavior for individuals directly subject to them. To date, there has been no systematic review or meta-analysis on the effects of these interventions on crime and individual-level outcomes.

Objectives

To synthesize the existing evaluation research regarding the impact of police-initiated pedestrian stops on crime and disorder, mental and physical health, individual attitudes toward the police, self-reported crime/delinquency, violence in police-citizen encounters, and police misbehavior.

Search Methods

We used the Global Policing Database, a repository of all experimental and quasi-experimental evaluations of policing interventions conducted since 1950, to search for published and unpublished evaluations of pedestrian stop interventions through December of 2019. This overarching search was supplemented by additional searches of academic databases, gray literature sources, and correspondence with subject-matter experts to capture eligible studies through December 2021.

Selection Criteria

Eligibility was limited to studies that included a treatment group of people or places experiencing pedestrian stops and a control group of people or places not experiencing pedestrian stops (or experiencing a lower dosage of pedestrian stops). Studies were required to use an experimental or quasi-experimental design and evaluate the intervention using an outcome of area-level crime and disorder, mental or physical health, individual or community-level attitudes toward the police, or self-reported crime/delinquency.

Data Collection and Analysis

We adopted standard methodological procedures expected by the Campbell Collaboration. Eligible studies were grouped by conceptually similar outcomes and then analyzed separately using random effects models with restricted maximum likelihood estimation. Treatment effects were represented using relative incident rate ratios, odds ratios, and Hedges' g effect sizes, depending on the unit of analysis and outcome measure. We also conducted sensitivity analyses for several outcome measures using robust variance estimation, with standard errors clustered by each unique study/sample. Risk of bias was assessed using items adapted from the Cochrane randomized and non-randomized risk of bias tools.

Results

Our systematic search strategies identified 40 eligible studies corresponding to 58 effect sizes across six outcome groupings, representing 90,904 people and 20,876 places. Police-initiated pedestrian stop interventions were associated with a statistically significant 13% (95% confidence interval [CI]: -16%, -9%, p < 0.001) reduction in crime for treatment areas relative to control areas. These interventions also led to a diffusion of crime control benefits, with a statistically significant 7% (95% CI: -9%, -4%, p < 0.001) reduction in crime for treatment displacement areas relative to control areas. However, pedestrian stops were also associated with a broad range of negative individual-level effects. Individuals experiencing police stops were associated with a statistically significant 46% (95% CI: 24%, 72%, p < 0.001) increase in the odds of a mental health issue and a 36% (95% CI: 14%, 62%, p < 0.001) increase in the odds of a physical health issue, relative to control. Individuals experiencing police stops also reported significantly more negative attitudes toward the police (g = -0.38, 95% CI: -0.59, -0.17, p < 0.001) and significantly higher levels of self-reported crime/delinquency (g = 0.30, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.48, p < 0.001), equating to changes of 18.6% and 15%, respectively. No eligible studies were identified measuring violence in police-citizen encounters or officer misbehavior. While eligible studies were often considered to be at moderate to high risk of bias toward control groups, no significant differences based on methodological rigor were observed. Moderator analyses also indicated that the negative individual-level effects of pedestrian stops may be more pronounced for youth, and that significant differences in effect sizes may exist between US and European studies. However, these moderator analyses were limited by a small number of studies in each comparison, and we were unable to compare the effects of police stops across racial groupings.

Authors' Conclusions

While our findings point to favorable effects of pedestrian stop interventions on place-based crime and displacement outcomes, evidence of negative individual-level effects makes it difficult to recommend the use of these tactics over alternative policing interventions. Recent systematic reviews of hot spots policing and problem-oriented policing approaches indicate a more robust evidence-base and generally larger crime reduction effects than those presented here, often without the associated backfire effects on individual health, attitudes, and behavior. Future research should examine whether police agencies can mitigate the negative effects of pedestrian stops through a focus on officer behavior during these encounters.

The effects of community-infused problem-oriented policing in crime hot spots based on police data: a randomized controlled trial

Objectives

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) assessed the effectiveness of a community-infused problem-oriented policing (CPOP) intervention on reducing property/violent crime.

Methods

In two mid-Atlantic cities, a total of 102 crime hot spots were randomly assigned to receive CPOP or standard patrol. Analyses examine changes in crime the year before, during, and one year after the intervention. We used hierarchical Poisson regression models.

Results

We found no main effects for the CPOP intervention on property and violent crimes in either site. In site B, the violent crime count in low treatment hot spots was 200% higher than controls post-intervention but this likely reflected officers paying less attention to treatment locations with lower levels of crime.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that CPOP was not effective in the unusual context of the COVID-19 pandemic and post-George Floyd killing. Given the challenges of implementing CPOP during this unique time, caution is needed in interpreting these findings.

The impact of COVID-19 on police officer activities

Objective

This study examined the impact of COVID-19 on police reactive and proactive activities in Houston, Texas. Seven types of police officer reactivity and three distinct categories of proactivity were examined.

Methods

Weekly calls for service data from January 1, 2018-December 31, 2020 were analyzed through interrupted time series using ARIMA models.

Results

Police responses to property, traffic-related activities, and service-related calls all decreased when compared to previous years. A significant increase was observed for violent crime calls. Self-initiated activities performed by specialized crime units significantly decreased, but there was a significant increase in self-initiated patrol. Activities performed by a specialized response unit initially increased, but then went back to pre-pandemic levels following the death of George Floyd.

Conclusions

Observed decreases in reactivity may be attributed to changes in citizens' routine activities. COVID-19 was associated with increased demands for police responses to violence, consistent with extant research. A unique contribution of this study was the incorporation of officer proactivity. Changes to proactive patrol could also be attributed to changes in the routine activities of citizens. This study adds to the growing body of literature examining the impact of COVID-19 on police services.

A degree of recognition across policing: embedding a degree apprenticeship encompassing work-based research

Purpose

As the police service across England and Wales moves towards degree-level study for new recruits as a component of recognising the profession of policing, this paper describes and discusses the introduction of the Police Constable Degree Apprenticeship (PCDA) and the core skills of evidence-based policing (EBP) as an educational theme for solving work-based problems.

Design/methodology/approach

Authored by both policing practitioners and researchers, this paper refers to key literature whilst exploring the implementation of the PCDA as a component of a Policing Education Qualifications Framework (PEQF). It highlights some of the challenges faced with its implementation along with the benefits of the adopting this degree-level education and work-based programme where EBP is embedded in to both study and professional practice.

Findings

There are significant benefits to the police service of adopting the PCDA as one of the entry routes for new police constables and embracing the educational development and professional application of EBP. However, this does not come without a number of challenges for the service and the professional body for policing.

Originality/value

This paper, co-authored by both policing practitioners and researchers, provides a contemporary view on the introduction of the PCDA as an initial entry route for new police constables and the embedding of EBP within both their learning and professional practice. As the first graduates complete their studies, the paper discusses the opportunities the adoption presents and the challenges it faces both locally and nationally.

The Helicopter Pilot-Swedish Hot-Area Policing From Above

Hot spot policing is an established concept that is proven to reduce crime. It is mostly done through foot patrol or car patrols. In the present study it is tested whether helicopters can produce a deterrent policing effect to reduce the amount of vehicle arsons in Sweden on larger hot areas. Sweden tends to have elevated levels of vehicle arsons in August, with about 20% of police districts responsible for 50% of the cases. The risk narrative revolves around youth congregating in public places in deprived neighborhoods to generate disturbances, and the disruption of the risk narrative tested here is based on providing deterrence through helicopter police presence. During 6 weeks in August and September of 2019 police helicopters patrolled four police districts in Sweden to attempt to prevent vehicle arsons. Our data comprise police reports of vehicle arson, and time stamped satellite data over the location for police helicopters. The evaluation considers whether there is an intention to treat effect from this project, in addition to whether there is an effect of actual helicopter presence. The study finds no significant effect of intention to treat, nor of actual dosage.