Interdependence of radial scar and proliferative disease with respect to invasive breast carcinoma risk in patients with benign breast biopsies

Nonneoplastic and neoplastic sclerosing lesions of the breast

Sclerosing lesions of the breast encompass a spectrum of benign and malignant entities and often pose a diagnostic challenge. Awareness of key morphologic features and pitfalls in the assessment of morphology and immunophenotype is essential to avoid over- or underdiagnosis and ensure optimal clinical management. This review summarizes nonneoplastic sclerosing lesions such as radial scar/complex sclerosing lesion, sclerosing adenosis, sclerosing intraductal papilloma, sclerosing variants of ductal adenoma and nipple adenoma, and fibroadenoma with extensive sclerosis, including their clinical presentation, characteristic morphology, differential diagnostic considerations, appropriate immunohistochemical work-up, when needed, and the clinical significance. In addition, atypical or neoplastic entities (such as atypical ductal hyperplasia, ductal carcinoma in situ, low-grade adenosquamous carcinoma, and fibromatosis-like metaplastic carcinoma) that can involve these sclerosing lesions are also briefly discussed.

Radial sclerosing lesions found on core needle biopsy: excision can be safely avoided

AIMS

Radial sclerosing lesions (RSLs) are benign breast lesions composed of glandular and epithelial proliferations with stellate architecture and fibro-elastotic stroma, which can mimic invasive carcinoma on imaging. Surgical management following a core biopsy diagnosis of RSLs remains controversial.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We retrospectively identified core biopsies with RSLs without atypia who underwent subsequent surgical excision between 2015 and 2021. All core biopsy slides were reviewed to confirm the diagnosis. Imaging was reviewed to determine radiological-pathological concordance. An upgrade was defined as invasive carcinoma or ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) in the excision. The final cohort consisted of 130 core biopsies from 124 women (median age = 52 years, range = 27-76). The imaging modality was mammogram in 52 (40%) cases, MRI in 52 (40%) and ultrasound in 26 (20%). One hundred and seven (82%) core biopsies were vacuum-assisted and 23 (18%) were ultrasound-guided without vacuum assistance. The median lesion size on imaging was 9 mm (range = 2-41). Overall, two (1%) cases were upgraded at excision, including one microinvasive lobular carcinoma and one 2 mm focus of invasive mammary carcinoma with associated DCIS. In both cases, the upgraded foci of carcinoma were not closely associated with the biopsy site and were considered incidental upgrades.

CONCLUSIONS

This study adds to the body of literature supporting observation, rather than routine excision of radial sclerosing lesions without atypia.

Updates in the Surgical Management of Benign and High-Risk Breast Lesions

Benign breast disease (BBD) is a heterogenous group of lesions often classified as nonproliferative or proliferative, with the latter group further categorized based on the presence of atypia. Although nonproliferative lesions are more common, the risk of breast cancer is elevated in women with proliferative lesions. Historically, the majority of proliferative lesions were excised due to concern for future and/or concomitant breast cancer at the site of the index lesion. However, contemporary data suggest that the risk of cancer associated with various proliferative lesions may be lower than previously thought, and management of BBD has become more nuanced. In this review, we will focus on recent updates in the management of a select group of benign and high-risk lesions.

Upgrade risk of image-targeted radial scar and complex sclerosing lesions diagnosed at needle-guided biopsy: a retrospective study

OBJECTIVES

To determine the upgrade rate of radial scar (RS) and complex sclerosing lesions (CSL) diagnosed with percutaneous biopsy. The secondary objectives were to determine the new atypia rate after surgery and to assess the diagnosis of subsequent malignancy on follow-up.

METHODS

This single-institution retrospective study had IRB approval. All image-targeted RS and CSL diagnosed with percutaneous biopsy between 2007 and 2020 were reviewed. Patient demographics, imaging presentation, biopsy characteristics, histological report, and follow-up data were collected.

RESULTS

During the study period, 120 RS/CSL were diagnosed in 106 women (median age, 43.5 years; range, 23-74), and 101 lesions were analyzed. At biopsy, 91 (90.1%) lesions were not associated with another atypia or malignancy and 10 (9.9%) were associated with another atypia. Out of the 91 lesions that were not associated with malignancy or atypia, 75 (82.4%) underwent surgical excision, and one upgrade to low-grade CDIS was detected (1.3%). Among the 10 lesions initially associated with another atypia, 9 were surgically excised and no malignancy was detected. After a median follow-up of 47 months (range: 12-143 months), two (1.98%) developed malignancy in a different quadrant; in both cases, another atypia was present at biopsy.

CONCLUSION

We found a low upgrade rate on image-detected RS/CSL, with or without another atypia associated. Associated atypia was underdiagnosed at biopsy in almost one-third of cases. Subsequent cancer risk could not be established because the only two cases were associated with another high-risk lesion (HRL), which might have increased the patient's risk of developing malignancy.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT

Our upgrade rates of RS/CSL with or without atypia diagnosed with core needle biopsy are almost as low as the ones reported with larger sampling methods. This result has particular importance in places with limited accessibility to US-guided vacuum-assisted biopsy.

KEY POINTS

•New evidence is showing lower upgrade rates of RS and CSL after surgery, leading to a more conservative management with extensive sampling using VAB or VAE. •Our study showed only one upgrade to a low-grade DCIS after surgery, yielding an upgrade rate of 1.33%. •During follow-up, no new malignancy was detected in the same quadrant where RS/CSL was diagnosed, including patients without surgery.

Selective surgical excision of high-risk lesions

Intraductal papilloma, flat epithelial atypia, radial scar, atypical lobular hyperplasia, and lobular carcinoma in situ have historically been referred to as high-risk lesions and managed with routine surgical excision after diagnosis on core needle biopsy. The misnomer high-risk stems from high rates of upgrade to malignancy reported in historic literature. However, recent studies have found much lower upgrade rates, <2%, than previously thought. These findings are explained by advances in imaging technology, larger-bore biopsy needles, and emphasis on radiology-pathology concordance. Concordant lesions have a low upgrade risk and can be managed with radiographic and clinical surveillance instead of surgical excision. Surgical de-escalation is feasible for many of these lesions with careful multidisciplinary review and a detailed risk-benefit discussion with patients.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Assessment of Radial Scars/complex Sclerosing Lesions of the Breast

PURPOSE

To describe the magnetic resonance characteristics of radial scars/complex sclerosing lesions (RS/CSL) of the breast using the current BI-RADS lexicon. To investigate the value of diffusion weighted imaging to predict malignancy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From 2010 to 2017, we have found 25 women with architectural distortion at mammography who underwent surgical resection with a final hystopathologic report of RS/CSL. For the description of MRI findings, we adhered to BI-RADS classification (5th edition).

RESULTS

The final pathological diagnosis was: "pure" RS/CSL in 7 cases (28%), RS/CSL with associated high risk lesions in 12 (48%) and 6 cases (24%) were associated with malignancy. Magnetic resonance findings: four of 25 negative or focus. Five of 25 mass enhancement: irregular, non circumscribed spiculated mass with heterogeneous or rim enhancement and most with type II curves. Sixteen of 25 non mass enhancement: focal or linear distribution and heterogeneous internal enhancement most with type I curves. Six of 25 had cancer associated with the complex sclerosing lesion. All six showed non-mass enhancement. Two cases with invasive breast carcinoma had ADC values under 1.15 x10-3 mm/s while most of the rest had the values above.

CONCLUSION

Most RS/CSL showed enhancement at MR. The predominant pattern was a non-mass, focal, heterogeneous internal enhancement with type 1 curves. All cases with associated cancer showed non mass enhancement. Invasive breast cancers had ADC values < 1.15 10-3 s/mm2.

Pure Radial Scars Do Not Require Surgical Excision When Concordant and Benign at Image-guided Breast Biopsy

OBJECTIVE

To determine the best management option (surgical excision versus imaging surveillance) following the diagnosis of pure radial scars (RSs) and RSs with associated additional high-risk lesions (HRLs) encountered on percutaneous core-needle breast biopsy.

METHODS

An IRB-approved retrospective review of the breast imaging reporting system database was performed to identify all cases of pure RS alone or RS plus an additional HRL (papilloma, atypia, lobular neoplasia) diagnosed on core-needle biopsy, from 2007 to 2016, at four breast centers in our institution. Cases with associated malignancy, discordant radiologic-pathologic results, or those lost to follow-up were excluded. The remaining cases were evaluated to determine results of either subsequent surgical excision or long-term follow-up imaging (minimum of two years). Additional data recorded included clinical presentation, breast density, personal and family history of breast cancer, lesion imaging characteristics, and biopsy method.

RESULTS

The study cohort included 111 patients with 111 lesions: 56.8% (63/111) with RS alone (pure) and 43.2% (48/111) with RS plus additional HRL(s). Out of the 63 radiologic-pathologic concordant pure RSs, there were no upgrades to malignancy in 51 subsequent surgical excisions or 12 long-term surveillance cases (0/63, 0%). Out of the 48 RSs plus additional HRL(s), there were 2 upgrades to malignancy (2/48, 4.2%).

CONCLUSION

Cases of radiologic-pathologic concordant pure RS diagnosed at core-needle biopsy do not require surgical excision. On the other hand, surgical excision should be considered for RS plus additional HRLs diagnosed at core-needle biopsy.

Significance of adenosquamous proliferation in breast lesions

Adenosquamous proliferation (ASP), characterised by ductal structures with a dual glandular and squamous phenotype within desmoplastic stroma, is essentially a hallmark of various sclerosing lesions of the breast (SL) and breast lesions with sclerosis (BLWS), not including sclerosing adenosis. In radial scar/complex sclerosing lesion (RS/CSL), clonality has been previously demonstrated in microdissected ASP. SL/BLWS encompass a diverse range of pathological entities that historically have an equally diverse list of names, often for histologically alike or identical lesions at different anatomical locations. In common they are comprised of one or more components of fibrocystic or proliferative breast disease and papillomata, which become distorted and even obliterated by a sclerosing process that appears to be associated with and/or secondary to ASP, which in an individual lesion may be inconspicuous at the time of biopsy. The histological overlap of various SL/BLWS with RS/CSL, in which a nidus containing ASP is pathognomonic of early lesions, also supports a common element of ASP across various SL/BLWS. SL/BLWS show an interesting association with low-grade metaplastic carcinoma, particularly low-grade adenosquamous carcinoma (LGASC) with which, they appear to form a histological and possible biological spectrum because ASP and LGASC share similar histological and immunophenotypical characteristics. The presentation of ASP in various SL/BLWS will be discussed.

Radial scars and complex sclerosing lesions on core needle biopsy of the breast: upgrade rates and long-term outcomes

PURPOSE

Radial scars and complex sclerosing lesions of the breast are part of a group of "indeterminate" breast lesions, which are excised due to risk of coexistent carcinoma. The aim of this study was to assess rate of upgrade of these lesions to invasive and in situ carcinoma and to quantify the risk of development of subsequent cancer in women diagnosed with these lesions.

METHODS

A retrospective review of a prospectively maintained breast screening database was performed. All patients with radial scar identified at either core biopsy or final excision biopsy between January 2006 and July 2012 were identified. Full pathological reports for both core biopsy and final excision biopsy were reviewed. Patient outcomes were followed for a mean of 117.1 months.

RESULTS

Of 451 B3 biopsies performed at our screening unit, 95 (22%) were found to have a radial scar or complex sclerosing lesion (CSL) on core needle biopsy. Within this group, 77 had no atypia on CNB, with 7 (9%) upgraded to invasive/in situ carcinoma on final excision. Of nine with definite atypia on CNB, 3 (33%) were upgraded. In those patients without atypia or malignancy on final excision, 7.5% developed cancer during 10-year follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Patients with radial scar with atypia have a higher risk of upgrade to malignancy. Further research is needed to identify which patients may safely avoid excision of radial scar. Patients with a diagnosis of radial scar on CNB are at increased subsequent risk of breast cancer and may benefit from additional screening.

Pitfalls and controversies in pathology impacting breast cancer management

Introduction: Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease, at morphological, molecular, and clinical levels and this has significant implications for the diagnosis and management of the disease. The introduction of breast screening, and the use of small tissue sampling for diagnosis, the recognition of new morphological and molecular subtypes, and the increasing use of neoadjuvant therapies have created challenges in pathological diagnosis and classification.Areas covered: Areas of potential difficulty include columnar cell lesions, particularly flat epithelial atypia, atypical ductal hyperplasia, lobular neoplasia and its variants, and a range of papillary lesions. Fibroepithelial, sclerosing, mucinous, and apocrine lesions are also considered. Established and newer prognostic and predictive markers, such as immune infiltrates, PD-1 and PD-L1 and gene expression assays are evaluated. The unique challenges of pathology assessment post-neoadjuvant systemic therapy are also explored.Expert opinion: Controversies in clinical management arise due to incomplete and sometimes conflicting data on clinicopathological associations, prognosis, and outcome. The review will address some of these challenges.

Reducing indications for radial scar surgical excision in Slovenian breast cancer screening program

PURPOSE

Management of the radial scar (RS)/complex sclerosing lesion (CSL) diagnosed by core needle biopsy (CNB) in breast cancer screening population (BCSP) is controversial due to its intrinsic malignant potential. We aimed to determine (i) the rate of upgrade of the RS/CSL to malignant lesions and (ii) radiological characteristics and CNB histopathological findings of the lesions related to the upgrade of the RS/CSL to malignant lesions after surgical excision in our BCSP.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Database of Slovenian National Breast Cancer Screening Program was checked for terms RS/CSL in all patients who underwent CNB in the period 2008-2018. The ratios of upgrade from CNB RS/SCL to malignant lesions after surgical excision were calculated with specific interest to the radiological characteristics and the CNB patohistologically findings of the lesions.

RESULTS

Of 162 patients with diagnosis of RS/CSL on the CNB, 121/156 (78%) cases underwent surgical excision. 6 of 121 (5%) cases were upgraded to a malignant diagnosis in surgical specimen, 3 cases of invasive carcinoma and 3 cases of DCIS, respectively. Five of the upgraded cases (5/6, 83.3%) showed atypical epithelial proliferative lesions (AEPL) on CNB. In one upgraded case without AEPL the lesion presented as 33 mm architectural distortion with microcalcifications on the mammogram.

CONCLUSIONS

In BCSP setting RS/CSL without AEPL/papilloma and those measuring less than 2 cm in the largest diameter can be followed radiologically. Increasing the number of cores and adequate sampling of the periphery and the centre of the RS/CSL improves the pick-up rate of associated atypia/malignancy.

Management of radial scars/complex sclerosing lesions of the breast diagnosed on vacuum-assisted large-core biopsy: is surgery always necessary?

AIMS

The diagnosis of radial scars/complex sclerosing lesions (RSs/CSLs) onpercutaneous biopsy carries a risk of histological underestimation. Consequently, surgical excision is often performed in order to exclude a possible associated malignancy. The aim of this study was to assess the rate of 'upgrade to carcinoma' upon subsequent surgical excision of RS/CSL cases diagnosed on vacuum-assisted large-core biopsy (VALCB). We also analysed the risk factors for upgrade in order to determine a subset of patients who could avoid surgery and benefit from conservative management with clinical and imaging follow-up.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This was a retrospective observational single-centre study on 174 consecutive RS/CSL cases diagnosed on VALCB from May 2008 to October 2015. Univariate analysis was performed to identify clinical, radiological and histological risk factors for upgrade. Surgical excision was performed following VALCB diagnosis of 88 RS/CSL cases with or without associated atypia. The overall rate of surgical upgrade to carcinoma was 9.1% (8/88). None of the benign biopsies without atypia was surgically upgraded. Additional to atypia, risk factors for upgrade were non-incidental finding of the RS/CSL, the mammographic appearance, and the number of fragments obtained during the biopsy procedure (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that VALCB revealing an RS/CSL is reliable for excluding malignancy when there is no associated atypia and when radiological and histological findings are concordant. In such cases, surgery can be avoided in favour of clinical and imaging follow-up. When an RS/CSL is associated with atypia, the decision to perform surgical excision depends on other associated risk factors.

Detection of NRAS G12D and NRAS G13C mutant genes among apparently healthy and haematologic malignant individuals in Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria

Rat Sarcoma gene mutations is an important aspect in the management of hematologic malignancies globally. Unfortunately, this is not the trend in West Africa, including Nigeria. This study was aimed at detecting NRAS G12D and NRAS G13C mutant genes among apparently healthy and haematologic malignant individuals, and to explore their association with some clinical and demographic factors as well as disease status and progression. A total of 200 cfDNAs, 100 each from haematologic malignant patients and blood donors, respectively, were analyzed for the presence of NRAS gene mutations in codons 12 and 13. These mutations were tested using multiplex allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR). The mutations were detected by selective amplification using mutation-specific synthetic oligonucleotides. NRAS G12D and NRAS G13C mutations were 20.0% and 10.0%, respectively. In 17.5% of the 100 haemapoietic cancer patients, NRAS G12D mutant genes were seen while 7.5% of NRAS G13C mutation was found. Both mutant genes were observed in five healthy blood donors each. This result confirms the existence of NRAS mutations in Nigerian haemapoietic cancer patients and the preponderance of G-A transitions over G-T transversions. Mutant NRAS genes were associated with the types and stages of cancer, highlighting probable connection between mutation and increased susceptibility as well as quick progression of hematologic malignancies in the population studied. The result also highlighted higher risk of susceptibility/progression associated with leukemia than other hematopoietic cancers. We recommend more studies on NRAS mutation specifically targeted at improved diagnosis and prognostic therapy. The role of RAS mutation should be explored in other aside blood cancers in the Nigerian population.

Occurrence of acute myeloid leukemia in hydroxyurea-treated sickle cell disease patient

Hydroxyurea (HU) has been widely used in sickle cell disease. Its potential long-term risk for carcinogenesis or leukemogenic risk remains undefined. Here, we report a 26 y old African-American female with Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) who developed refractory/relapsed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) 6 months after 26 months of HU use. That patient's cytogenetics and molecular genetics analyses demonstrated a complex mutation profile with 5q deletion, trisomy 8, and P53 deletion (deletion of 17p13.1). P53 gene sequence studies revealed a multitude of somatic mutations that most suggest a treatment-related etiology. The above-mentioned data indicates that the patient may have developed acute myeloid leukemia with myelodysplasia-related changes (AML-MRC) as a direct result of HU exposure.

Meta-analysis of upgrade rates in 3163 radial scars excised after needle core biopsy diagnosis

BACKGROUND

Since concurrent malignancy may be associated with radial scars (RS) in up to 45% of RS diagnosed on core biopsy, surgical excision is usually advised. Recent very low upgrade rates have caused a re-evaluation of the need for routine surgery. We aimed to find subsets of RS at such low risk of upgrade, as to render imaging surveillance a plausible alternative to surgery.

DESIGN

We performed a systematic review of the Pubmed, Cochrane and Embase databases, focusing on the following eligibility criteria: full papers, published after 1998, in English, included at least 5 RS, provided information on needle biopsy gauge and upgrade rates based on the excised lesion. For the meta-analysis, studies were grouped by the presence of histologic atypia and the core needle gauge. Study-specific and pooled upgrade rates were calculated for each subgroup.

RESULTS

49 studies that included 3163 RS with surgical outcomes are included. There were 217 upgrades to malignancies, 71 (32.7%) invasive and 144 (66.4%) DCIS. The random-effects pooled estimate was 7% (95% CI 5, 9%). Among the pre-planned subgroups, in RS assessed by 14G NCB the upgrade rates were: without atypia - 5% (95% CI 3, 8%), mixed or presence of atypia not specified - 15% (95% CI 10, 20%), with atypia - 29% (95% CI 20, 38%). For RS assessed by a mix of 8-16G cores the respective upgrade rates were 2% (95% CI 1, 4%), 12% (95% CI 6, 18%) and 11% (95% CI 3, 23%) and for RS assessed by 8-11 vacuum assisted biopsies 1% (95% CI 0, 4%), 5% (95% CI 0, 11%) and 18% for the one study of RS with atypia assessed by VAB. Surgery after VAB excision showed no upgrades. The difference across all subgroups was statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

When stratified by atypia and biopsy gauge, upgrade rates in RS are consistent and predictable. RS assessed by VABs and lacking atypia have a 1% (95% CI 0, 4%) upgrade rate to DCIS. Other groups have upgrade rates of 2-28%. This risk may be reduced by VAB excision. The results of this meta-analysis provide a decision aid and evidence-based selection criteria for surgery after a needle biopsy diagnosis of RS.

Core Needle Biopsy of the Breast: An Evaluation of Contemporary Data

Benign and atypical lesions associated with breast cancer risk are often encountered in core needle biopsies (CNBs) of the breast. For these lesions, the rate of "upgrade" to carcinoma in excision specimens varies widely in the literature. Many CNB studies are limited by a lack of radiological-pathological correlation, consistent criteria for excision, and clinical follow-up for patients who forego excision. This article highlights contemporary diagnostic criteria and outcome data that would support an evidence-based approach to the management of these nonmalignant lesions of the breast diagnosed on CNB.

Benign Breast Diseases: Evaluation and Management

Benign breast disease is a spectrum of common disorders. The majority of patients with a clinical breast lesion will have benign process. Management involves symptom control when present, pathologic-based and imaging-based evaluation to distinguish from a malignant process, and counseling for patients that have an increased breast cancer risk due to the benign disorder.

Radial Scars of the Breast Encountered at Core Biopsy: Review of Histologic, Imaging, and Management Considerations

OBJECTIVE

The purposes of this article are to place the controversy over the management of radial scars diagnosed at core biopsy in perspective and to define reasonable management options.

CONCLUSION

The management of radial scars after image-guided core biopsy of the breast for diagnosis remains controversial. Although current literature suggests no premalignant potential of these lesions, it does not fully explain the small but real percentage of these lesions that are upgraded to malignancy after surgical excision. This upgrade phenomenon is probably best explained by core biopsy sampling error. A recommendation minimizing this possibility based on lesion size seems reasonable.

Next generation sequencing of the nidus of early (adenosquamous proliferation rich) radial sclerosing lesions of the breast reveals evidence for a neoplastic precursor lesion

We sought to determine if adenosquamous proliferation of early cellular radial sclerosing lesions of the breast harbours hot spot mutations and to help clarify its relationship to low‐grade adenosquamous carcinoma as a potential form of early neoplasia. Four low‐grade adenosquamous carcinomas, early radial sclerosing lesions from 13 individuals, and 4 benign proliferative breast lesions were microdissected and assessed with a 50‐gene Hot‐spot cancer panel. Early radial sclerosing lesions were selectively microdissected concentrating on their adenosquamous proliferation (nidus). Hot spot mutations in PIK3CA were detected in ten (77% of) radial sclerosing lesions, in one low‐grade adenosquamous carcinoma, and in usual ductal hyperplasia and apocrine adenosis. Over three quarters of individuals with cellular (adenosquamous proliferation rich) early radial sclerosing lesions tested harboured somatic mutations in PIK3CA suggesting that adenosquamous proliferation is a clonal lesion. Its relationship to low‐grade adenosquamous carcinoma remains unclear in view of the small sample size and unmatched radial sclerosing lesions and low‐grade adenosquamous carcinomas.

Subareolar Sclerosing Ductal Hyperplasia

Subareolar sclerosing duct hyperplasia (SSDH) remains to be fully characterized nearly 20 years after initial description. Thirty-five SSDH cases diagnosed over a 16-year period (January 2000 to December 2015) were reviewed. All patients were female (mean age = 59 years, range = 18-80) who had presented with a unilateral solitary lesion (left 22, right 13) with a mean size of 1.3 cm (range = 0.4-3.0 cm), and showed florid and papillary epithelial hyperplasia with dense sclerosis without involvement of nipple or areolar epidermis. Significant lesions concurrent within SSDH included low-grade adenosquamous carcinoma (n = 1), ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS; n = 1), lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS; n = 1), and atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH; n = 13). No case of SSDH recurred in a mean follow-up of 44 months (range = 6-189). Subsequent significant lesions occurred in 6 patients: DCIS (n = 3; ipsilateral 2, contralateral 1), ipsilateral ADH (n = 2), and ipsilateral atypical lobular hyperplasia (n = 1). Long-term follow-up for patients with SSDH is indicated as DCIS can occur subsequently in either breast.

First International Consensus Conference on lesions of uncertain malignant potential in the breast (B3 lesions)

The purpose of this study is to obtain a consensus for the therapy of B3 lesions. The first International Consensus Conference on lesions of uncertain malignant potential in the breast (B3 lesions) including atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH), flat epithelial atypia (FEA), classical lobular neoplasia (LN), papillary lesions (PL), benign phyllodes tumors (PT), and radial scars (RS) took place in January 2016 in Zurich, Switzerland organized by the International Breast Ultrasound School and the Swiss Minimally Invasive Breast Biopsy group-a subgroup of the Swiss Society of Senology. Consensus recommendations for the management and follow-up surveillance of these B3 lesions were developed and areas of research priorities were identified. The consensus recommendation for FEA, LN, PL, and RS diagnosed on core needle biopsy or vacuum-assisted biopsy (VAB) is to therapeutically excise the lesion seen on imaging by VAB and no longer by open surgery, with follow-up surveillance imaging for 5 years. The consensus recommendation for ADH and PT is, with some exceptions, therapeutic first-line open surgical excision. Minimally invasive management of selected B3 lesions with therapeutic VAB is acceptable as an alternative to first-line surgical excision.

Practical Considerations in Breast Papillary Lesions: A Review of the Literature

Context.—Diagnosis of papillary breast lesions, especially in core biopsies, is challenging for most pathologists, and these lesions pose problems for patient management. Distinction between benign, premalignant, and malignant components of papillary lesions is challenging, and the diagnosis of invasion is problematic in lesions that have circumscribed margins. Obtaining a balance between overtreatment and undertreatment of these lesions is also challenging.

Objectives.—To provide a classification and a description of the histologic and immunohistochemical features and the differential diagnosis of papillary breast lesions, to provide an update on the molecular pathology of papillary breast lesions, and to discuss the recommendations for further investigation and management of papillary breast lesions. This review provides a concise description of the histologic and immunohistochemical features of the different papillary lesions of the breast.

Data Sources.—The standard pathology text books on breast pathology and literature on papillary breast lesions were reviewed with the assistance of the PubMed database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed).

Conclusions.—Knowledge of the clinical presentation, histology, immunoprofile, and behavior of papillary breast lesions will assist pathologists with the diagnosis and optimal management of patients with papillary breast lesions.

Immunotherapy for oesophagogastric cancer

INTRODUCTION

Gastric and oesophageal cancers are a pressing global health problem with high mortality rates and poor outcomes for advanced disease. The mainstay of treatment in the palliative setting has traditionally been chemotherapy, which accrues only modest survival benefits. As with other cancer types, there is increasing interest in the use of immunotherapy approaches to improve outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This paper reviews the aetiological and genetic characteristics of oesophagogastric (OG) cancers relevant to the application of immunotherapy and outlines the historical, present-day and potential future applications of immunotherapy in their management.

EXPERT OPINION

The use of agents targeting the PD1 pathway have led to impressive and durable responses in a minority of OG cancer patients and it would be expected that combinatorial approaches with chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other biological agents will improve responses further. Identification of clinically robust biomarkers is crucial in refining such approaches moving forwards. The application of modern sequencing technology to the development of personalized neoantigen-based vaccines represents an exciting amalgamation of genomics and immunotherapy, with potentially important clinical implications in OG cancer.

Radial scars diagnosed on breast core biopsy: Frequency of atypia and carcinoma on excision and implications for management

AIMS

The risk of finding carcinoma in excisions following a core needle biopsy diagnosis of radial scar is not well defined and clinical management is variable. The aim of this study is to determine the frequency of high-risk lesions, ductal carcinoma in situ, and invasive carcinoma in excisions following a core biopsy diagnosis of radial scar.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Dedicated breast pathologists and radiologists correlated the histologic and radiologic findings and categorized radial scars as the target lesion or an incidental finding. High-risk lesions were defined as atypical hyperplasia or classical lobular carcinoma in situ. Of the 79 radial scars identified over a 14-year period, 22 were associated with atypia or carcinoma in the core biopsy. Thirty-seven (37) of the 57 benign radial scars underwent excision with benign findings in 30 (81%), high-risk lesions in six (16%), and flat epithelial atypia in one (3%). There were no upgrades to carcinoma. One patient with a benign radial scar developed a 3-mm focus of intermediate-grade estrogen receptor-positive ductal carcinoma in situ in the same quadrant of the ipsilateral breast 72 months after excision. One patient with an incidental un-excised benign radial scar was diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ at a separate site of suspicious calcifications.

CONCLUSIONS

In this series, none of the benign radial scars was upgraded to carcinoma. Radial scar was the targeted lesion in all cases with high-risk lesions on excision. Surgical excision may not be mandatory for patients with benign incidental radial scars on core biopsy.

Extent of atypical hyperplasia stratifies breast cancer risk in 2 independent cohorts of women

BACKGROUND

Women with atypical hyperplasia (AH) on breast biopsy have a substantially increased risk of breast cancer (BC). Here the BC risk for the extent and subtype of AH is reported for 2 separate cohorts.

METHODS

All samples containing AH were included from 2 cohorts of women with benign breast disease (Mayo Clinic and Nashville). Histology review quantified the number of foci of atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) and atypical lobular hyperplasia (ALH). The BC risk was stratified for the number of AH foci within AH subtypes.

RESULTS

The study included 708 Mayo AH subjects and 466 Nashville AH subjects. In the Mayo cohort, an increasing number of foci of AH was associated with a significant increase in the risk of BC both for ADH (relative risks of 2.61, 5.21, and 6.36 for 1, 2, and ≥3 foci, respectively; P for linear trend = .006) and for ALH (relative risks of 2.56, 3.50, and 6.79 for 1, 2, and ≥3 foci, respectively; P for linear trend = .001). In the Nashville cohort, the relative risks of BC for ADH were 2.70, 5.17, and 15.06 for 1, 2, and ≥3 foci, respectively (P for linear trend < .001); for ALH, the relative risks also increased but not significantly (2.61, 3.48, and 4.02, respectively; P = .148). When the Mayo and Nashville samples were combined, the risk increased significantly for 1, 2, and ≥3 foci: the relative risks were 2.65, 5.19, and 8.94, respectively, for ADH (P < .001) and 2.58, 3.49, and 4.97, respectively, for ALH (P = .001).

CONCLUSIONS

In 2 independent cohort studies of benign breast disease, the extent of atypia stratified the long-term BC risk for ADH and ALH. Cancer 2016;122:2971-2978. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Infiltrating epitheliosis of the breast: characterization of histological features, immunophenotype and genomic profile

AIMS

Infiltrating epitheliosis is a rare complex sclerosing lesion (CSL) of the breast, characterized by infiltrating ducts immersed in a scleroelastotic stroma and filled with cells having architectural and cytological patterns reminiscent of those of usual ductal hyperplasia. In this study we sought to define the molecular characteristics of infiltrating epitheliosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Eight infiltrating epitheliosis, adjacent breast lesions (one usual ductal hyperplasia, one papilloma, one micropapillary ductal carcinoma in situ and one low-grade adenosquamous carcinoma), and corresponding normal breast tissue from each case were microdissected and subjected to massively parallel sequencing analysis targeting all coding regions of 254 genes mutated recurrently in breast cancer and/or related to DNA repair. Mutations in components of the PI3K pathway were found in all infiltrating epitheliosis samples, seven of which harboured PIK3CA hotspot mutations, while the remaining case displayed a PIK3R1 somatic mutation.

CONCLUSIONS

Somatic mutations affecting PI3K pathway genes were found to be highly prevalent in infiltrating epitheliosis, suggesting that these lesions may be neoplastic rather than hyperplastic. The landscape of somatic genetic alterations found in infiltrating epitheliosis is similar to that of radial scars/CSLs, suggesting that infiltrating epitheliosis may represent one end of this spectrum of lesions.

[Benign proliferative breast disease with and without atypia]

In the last few years, diagnostics of high-risk breast lesions (atypical ductal hyperplasia [ADH], flat epithelial atypia [FEA], lobular neoplasia: atypical lobular hyperplasia [ALH], lobular carcinoma in situ [LCIS], radial scar [RS], usual ductal hyperplasia [UDH], adenosis, sclerosing adenosis [SA], papillary breast lesions, mucocele-like lesion [MLL]) have increased with the growing number of breast percutaneous biopsies. The management of these lesions is highly conditioned by the enlarged risk of breast cancer combined with either an increased probability of finding cancer after surgery, either a possible malignant transformation (in situ or invasive cancer), or an increased probability of developing cancer on the long range. An overview of the literature reports grade C recommendations concerning the management and follow-up of these lesions: in case of ADH, FEA, ALH, LCIS, RS, MLL with atypia, diagnosed on percutaneous biopsies: surgical excision is recommended; in case of a diagnostic based on vacuum-assisted core biopsy with complete disappearance of radiological signal for FEA or RS without atypia: surgical abstention is a valid alternative approved by multidisciplinary meeting. In case of ALH (incidental finding) associated with benign lesion responsible of radiological signal: abstention may be proposed; in case of UDH, adenosis, MLL without atypia, diagnosed on percutaneous biopsies: the concordance of radiology and histopathology findings must be ensured. No data is available to recommend surgery; in case of non-in sano resection for ADH, FEA, ALH, LCIS (except pleomorphic type), RS, MLL: surgery does not seem to be necessary; in case of previous ADH, ALH, LCIS: a specific follow-up is recommended in accordance with HAS's recommendations. In case of FEA and RS or MLL combined with atypia, little data are yet available to differ the management from others lesions with atypia; in case of UDH, usual sclerosing adenosis, RS without atypia, fibro cystic disease: no specific follow-up is recommended in agreement with HAS's recommendations.

Radial Scar at Image-guided Needle Biopsy: Is Excision Necessary?

Optimal management of a lesion yielding radial scar (RS) without epithelial atypia on breast biopsy is controversial. In this single-institution study spanning 17 years, 53 patients with this biopsy diagnosis were evaluated in terms of clinical, radiologic, and pathologic features and outcomes. RSs were categorized as either "incidental" or as the "targeted" lesion according to defined criteria. Of 48 patients who underwent surgical excision after a diagnosis of RS on biopsy, only 1 had an "upgrade" diagnosis of malignancy (2%). No "incidental" RS was associated with the presence of malignancy on surgical excision. Meta-analysis of 20 RS excision studies demonstrated an overall upgrade rate of 10.4%, with a higher rate in patients with a diagnosis of RS with atypia (26%). The upgrade rate for RS without atypia was 7.5% overall. The lower rate of upgrade to malignancy in this study (2%) is likely related to the thorough radiologic-pathologic review undertaken. In the setting of multidisciplinary agreement and careful radiologic-pathologic correlation, it may be appropriate for patients with a biopsy diagnosis of RS without atypia to forego surgical excision in favor of imaging follow-up.

Adenosquamous proliferation of the breast and low grade adenosquamous carcinoma: a common precursor of an uncommon cancer?

Low grade adenosquamous carcinoma (LGASC) is rare but commonly reported to arise in association with benign proliferative and sclerosing breast lesions which themselves may show associated sclerosing or 'adenosquamous proliferation' (ASP) resembling LGASC, but are often derided as reactive mimics or attributed to earlier biopsy. Among other benign lesions, radial sclerosing lesion (RSL) may be associated with LGASC, yet attention is typically focused on its relationship to more common forms of mammary carcinoma. This study aimed to assess the presence and extent of ASP in the context of RSL in a small cohort of 20 cases and its similarity to LGASC.Twenty consecutive breast excisions that had a principal or incidental diagnosis of RSL were reviewed. RSLs that displayed foci of ASP were further examined with immunohistochemical markers for p63, calponin, cytokeratin 5/6, oestrogen and progesterone receptors.Sixty percent of excisions contained ASP either associated with a RSL or a concurrent papilloma, which morphologically and immunohistochemically were indistinguishable from the neoplastic ducts of LGASC. RSL with and without ASP broadly corresponded to accepted definitions for 'early' and 'late' lesions, respectively. ASP corresponded to the characteristic compact branching ducts of the core or nidus of a RSL.The morphological and immunophenotypic similarity of the ASP found in RSL and papillomata to LGASC warrants serious consideration that they are a potential precursor to LGASC, which may most commonly involute given the rarity of clinically apparent LGASC. Further study including micro-dissection of foci of ASP to compare its molecular genetic profile to that of LGASC is required.

Radial scar/complex sclerosing lesions: a clinicopathologic correlation study from a single institution

Radial scars (RSs) or complex sclerosing lesions (CSLs) of the breast are benign radiologic and histologic entities. With the introduction of population-based screening programs, their incidence has increased to 0.03% to 0.09% of all core needle biopsies (CNBs). They can pose diagnostic difficulty because their radiologic and histologic appearances mimic carcinoma. We retrospectively searched for and reviewed all cases of RS/CSL diagnosed on image-guided CNB from January 1, 1994, to August 31, 2013, at a single institution. We also assessed the pathologic reports from excisional biopsies to identify cases upstaged to atypia or neoplasm. After exclusions, 100 CNBs were identified from 97 women, which showed RS/CSL without concomitant atypia. Mean age of the women was 52.9 years. Thirty-five women (38/100 CNBs, 38%) had follow-up excision. The median size of the excised RS/CSLs was 1.2 cm; 69% were larger than 1.0 cm. Almost all excised cases (92%) showed radiologic and pathologic concordance, and 79% were designated as suspicious for malignancy (Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System level 4). The most common findings of 38 follow-up excisional biopsies were residual RS (22 [58%]), atypical lobular hyperplasia (5 [13%]), and no residual lesion (5 [13%]). Eleven excisional biopsies (29%) were upstaged to invasive or in situ carcinoma or to atypical hyperplasia. Follow-up excisional biopsy is warranted for RS/CSLs, specifically those larger than 1.0 cm with worrisome radiographic findings or with radiologic and pathologic discordance. Approximately 29% of cases were upstaged to in situ or invasive carcinomas or other high-risk lesions in our study.

Breast cancer risk associated with the diagnosis of a microhistological radial scar (RS): retrospective analysis in 10 years of experience

PURPOSE

To retrospectively assess the risk of breast cancer associated with the radial scar (RS) microhistological diagnosis, also taking into consideration the percutaneous biopsy devices used, as well as the different performances of the mammographic systems (analogical, digital and tomosynthesis) in the radiological diagnosis of RS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between March 2002 and November 2011, 80 RSs were identified using the analogical, digital and tomosynthesis mammographic systems. Based on the microhistological examination, the patients were divided into three groups [RS without hyperplasic-proliferative lesions (HPL); RS with HPL; RS with cancer] and we assessed the risk of cancer associated with RS in the first and second group. We evaluated the mammographic features and the BI-RADS categories assigned to RSs, the biopsy devices used and the differences between the pathological examination and the microhistological diagnosis (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

Based on the microhistological examination, 51/80 patients were included in the first group (9 of them not subjected to surgery), 25/80 in the second group and 4/80 in the third one. At the final histological examination, there were 7/42 (16.7%) cancers in the first group and 8/25 (32%) in the second group. The largest number of microhistological underestimation occurred in the patients who were subjected to core biopsy (15 cases) (p < 0.05). Tomosynthesis improved (p < 0.05) the identification of the RS.

CONCLUSIONS

22.3% of the RSs was associated with cancer. Given that at microhistological examination 16.7% of the RS without HPL was cancer at pathology, the surgical excision is preferred. Tomosynthesis was useful to detect parenchymal distortions.

Radial scars and subsequent breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis

Background

The relationship between radial scars and breast cancer is unclear, as the results of different studies are inconsistent. We aim to solve the controversy and assess the breast cancer risk of radial scars.

Methods

Case-control or cohort studies about radial scars and breast cancer risk published in PubMed, Web of Science and the Cochrane Library from 2000 to 2013 were searched. Heterogeneity for the eligible data was assessed and a pooled odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated.

Results

Five observational studies involving 2521 cases and 20290 controls were included in our study. From pooled analysis, radial scars were found to have a 1.33 fold increased risk of breast cancer, but which was not significant (P = 0.138). Sample size contributed to heterogeneity. In subgroup analysis, the results pooled from studies with sample size >2000 show that presence of radial scars was associated with 1.6 times breast cancer risk compared to absence of radial scars. Radial scars increased the risk of breast cancer among women with proliferative disease without atypia, but no significant association between radial scars and carcinoma was noted among women with atypical hyperplasia.

Conclusions

Radial scars tend to be associated with an increased breast cancer risk. Radial scars should be considered among women with proliferative disease without atypia, while atypical hyperplasia is still the primary concern among women with both radial scars and atypical hyperplasia.

Surgical excision of radial scars diagnosed by core biopsy may help predict future risk of breast cancer

Radial scars (RS's) are benign breast lesions known to be associated with carcinomas and other high-risk lesions (HRL's). The upgrade rate to carcinoma after core biopsy revealing RS is 0-40 %. We sought to determine the outcomes of RS with and without HRL diagnosed by core biopsy. Patients who underwent core biopsy revealing RS without carcinoma at our institution between 1/1996 and 11/2012 were identified from a surgical pathology database. Retrospective chart review was utilized to classify patients as RS-no HRL or RS-HRL. HRL was defined as ADH, LCIS, and/or ALH. We determined upgrade rate to carcinoma at surgical excision, and upgrade to HRL for RS-no HRL patients. Univariate analysis was performed to identify risk factors for upgrade in RS-no HRL patients. 156 patients underwent core biopsy revealing RS, 131 RS-no HRL (84 %), and 25 RS-HRL (16 %). The overall rate of upgrade to invasive carcinoma was 0.8 % (1/124). 1.0 % (1/102) of RS-no HRL and 13.6 % (3/22) of RS-HRL patients were upgraded to DCIS (P = 0.0023). The upgrade of RS-no HRL to HRL at excision was 21.6 % (22/102). By univariate analysis, RS-no HRL with radiologic appearance of a mass/architectural distortion had a significantly higher rate of upgrade to HRL or carcinoma compared with calcifications (P = 0.03). Excision of RS to rule out associated invasive carcinoma is not warranted, given a <1 % rate of upgrade at excision. However, excision to evaluate for non-invasive cancer or HRL may be considered to help guide clinical decision-making about use of chemoprevention.

[Diagnostics of benign ductal epithelial cell proliferation of the breast in biopsy material]

The pathological evaluation of radiological or sonographical abnormalities by needle core biopsy of the breast frequently involves the differential diagnosis of benign epithelial cell proliferations. The lesions to be considered include usual type and atypical ductal epithelial cell hyperplasia, columnar cell changes including flat epithelial cell atypia, the spectrum of hyperplastic and atypical apocrine epithelial cell proliferations and papillary lesions. This review provides an overview of the diagnostic criteria, the current terminology and the differential diagnosis of these lesions. The clinical management and the prognosis of the lesions are discussed.

Imaging features of complex sclerosing lesions of the breast

Purpose:

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the imaging features of complex sclerosing lesions of the breast and to assess the rate of upgrade to breast cancer.

Methods:

From March 2008 to May 2012, seven lesions were confirmed as complex sclerosing lesions by ultrasonography-guided core needle biopsy. Final results by either surgical excision or follow-up imaging studies were reviewed to assess the rate of upgrade to breast cancer. Two radiologists retrospectively analyzed the imaging findings according to the Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System classification.

Results:

Five lesions underwent subsequent surgical excision and two of them revealed ductal carcinoma in situ (n=1) and invasive ductal carcinoma (n=1). Our study showed a breast cancer upgrade rate of 28.6% (2 of 7 lesions). Two lesions were stable on imaging follow-up beyond 1 year. The mammographic features included masses (n=4, 57.1%), architectural distortion (n=2, 28.6%), and focal asymmetry (n=1, 14.3%). Common B-mode ultrasonographic features were irregular shape (n=6, 85.7%), spiculated margin (n=5, 71.4 %), and hypoechogenicity (n=7, 100%). The final assessment categories were category 4 (n=6, 85.7%) and category 5 (n=1, 14.3%).

Conclusion:

The complex sclerosing lesions were commonly mass-like on mammography and showed the suspicious ultrasonographic features of category 4. Due to a high underestimation rate, all complex sclerosing lesions by core needle biopsy should be excised.

Radial scars and subsequent breast cancer risk: results from the Nurses' Health Studies

Radial scars (RS) are benign proliferative lesions associated with an increased risk of subsequent breast cancer. However, it remains unclear whether RS are an independent risk factor for breast cancer or whether their association with breast cancer is due to their common occurrence with other proliferative lesions known to increase breast cancer risk. We performed an updated analysis of the association between RS and subsequent breast cancer risk in a nested case-control study among 460 cases and 1,792 controls with benign breast disease (BBD) in the Nurses' Health Studies. Logistic regression was used to estimate associations between RS in BBD biopsy specimens and breast cancer risk, adjusted for matching factors and breast cancer risk factors, including histologic category of concurrent BBD. In multivariable models prior to adjustment for histologic category of BBD, RS were associated with a twofold increased risk of breast cancer (odds ratio (OR) = 2.0; 95 % confidence interval (95 % CI) 1.4, 2.8). This association was attenuated but still significant after adjustment for BBD histologic category (OR = 1.6; 95 % CI 1.1, 2.3). In models adjusted for BBD histologic category and other covariates, risk appeared greater among women with multiple RS (1 RS, OR = 1.5; 95 % CI 0.9, 2.3; ≥2 RS, OR = 2.7; 95 % CI 1.5, 5.0; p-heterogeneity = 0.12). There were also suggestions of a greater risk associated with RS among women age ≥50 years at biopsy (p-heterogeneity = 0.07) and for estrogen receptor-negative/progesterone receptor-negative tumors compared with other hormone receptor subtypes (p-heterogeneity = 0.19). RS appear to be an independent histologic risk factor for breast cancer. Larger studies are needed to further evaluate whether risk is increased when multiple RS are present and whether associations vary by age at biopsy or by hormone receptor status of the breast tumor.

The radial scar of the breast diagnosed at core needle biopsy

The radial scar (RS) or complex sclerosing lesion (CSL) of the breast represents a management dilemma on diagnosis at breast core needle biopsy because of the risk of associated malignancy identified only upon surgical excision. To determine our experience, we retrospectively reviewed core needle biopsies performed at the Darlene G. Cass Breast Imaging Center from 2006 to 2011, identifying 67 patients with RS or CSL, and correlated histology at excisional biopsy with core biopsy results. Of the 67 cases, 6 (9%) were associated with malignancy at surgical excision. The average size of the RS or CSL was 1.42 cm. In conclusion, RS or CSL diagnosed at core needle biopsy still warrants surgical excision because of the significant percentage (9%) of cases with associated malignancy.

A review of needle core biopsy diagnosed radial scars in the Welsh Breast Screening Programme

INTRODUCTION

Radial scars are benign breast lesions; their appearance on mammography may, however, mimic carcinoma. Needle core biopsy is performed for pre-operative diagnosis and, currently in Wales, all lesions with benign biopsy results are surgically excised. We have reviewed all cases of needle core biopsy-diagnosed radial scars from the Welsh breast screening programme, Breast Test Wales (BTW), and investigated the outcome of radial scars based on histology from surgical excision in order to evaluate the appropriateness of the current management of these lesions in Wales.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All needle core biopsy diagnosed radial scars were identified from the BTW screening database from the start of screening in 1989 until the end of 2007.

RESULTS

A total of 118 patients were diagnosed with radial scars on needle core biopsy; two patients had bilateral radial scars. Median patient age was 54 years (range, 49-68 years). Ninety-five lesions (79%) were thought to be pure radial scars on needle core biopsy; however, only 81 pure radial scars were identified on excision biopsy histology. Carcinoma was present in seven patients and ductal carcinoma in situ in nine patients at excision biopsy. In two patients, the cancers occurred in lesions reported as pure radial scars on needle core biopsy. Twenty-two lesions showed atypical ductal or lobular hyperplasia (ADH/ALH) or both on excision biopsy; 14 of these lesions were classed as pure radial scars by needle core biopsy.

CONCLUSIONS

All core biopsy diagnosed radial scars, presenting as screen detected abnormalities, should be excised due to their association with premalignant and malignant conditions.

Early Breast Cancer Precursor Lesions: Lessons Learned from Molecular and Clinical Studies

Atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH), flat epithelial atypia (FEA), and lobular neoplasia (LN) form a group of early precursor lesions that are part of the low-grade pathway in breast cancer development. This concept implies that the neoplastic disease process begins at a stage much earlier than in situ carcinoma. We have performed a review of the published literature for the upgrade risk to ductal carcinoma in situ or invasive carcinoma in open biopsy after a diagnosis of ADH, FEA, or LN in core needle biopsy. This has revealed the highest upgrade risk for ADH (28.2% after open biopsy), followed by LN (14.9%), and FEA (10.2%). With LN, the pleomorphic subtype is believed to confer a higher risk than classical LN. With all types of precursor lesions, careful attention must be paid to the clinicopathological correlation for the guidance of the clinical management. Follow-up biopsies are generally indicated in ADH, and if there is any radiological-pathological discrepancy, also in LN or FEA.

Breast cancer precursors revisited: molecular features and progression pathways

Increasingly more coherent data on the molecular characteristics of benign breast lesions and breast cancer precursors have led to the delineation of new multistep pathways of breast cancer progression through genotypic-phenotypic correlations. It has become apparent that oestrogen receptor (ER)-positive and -negative breast lesions are fundamentally distinct diseases. Within the ER-positive group, histological grade is strongly associated with the number and complexity of genetic abnormalities in breast cancer cells. Genomic analyses of high-grade ER-positive breast cancers have revealed that a substantial proportion of these tumours harbour the characteristic genetic aberrations found in low-grade ER-positive disease, suggesting that at least a subgroup of high-grade ER-positive breast cancers may originate from low-grade lesions. The ER-negative group is more complex and heterogeneous, comprising distinct molecular entities, including basal-like, HER2 and molecular apocrine lesions. Importantly, the type and pattern of genetic aberrations found in ER-negative cancers differ from those of ER-positive disease. Here, we review the available molecular data on breast cancer risk indicator and precursor lesions, the putative mechanisms of progression from in situ to invasive disease, and propose a revised model of breast cancer evolution based on the molecular characteristics of distinct subtypes of in situ and invasive breast cancers.

Epitheliosis, infiltrating epitheliosis, and radial scar

The lesion termed "infiltrating epitheliosis" (IE) by Azzopardi is described using his original criteria. The differential diagnosis from radial scar (RS) is discussed. It appears that IE and RS are histologically and histogenetically different and are also associated with a different risk of carcinoma. IE can be associated with either in situ or invasive carcinoma, whereas RS being more like a process of involution is very seldom involved by a carcinoma. Therefore, whatever name is used among the several found in the literature, it should be made clear they are not interchangeable when reporting on lesions like IE and RS.

A multi-center prospective cohort study of benign breast disease and risk of subsequent breast cancer

OBJECTIVE

We used a nested case-control design within a large, multi-center cohort of women who underwent a biopsy for benign breast disease (BBD) to assess the association of broad histologic groupings and specific histologic entities with risk of breast cancer.

METHODS

Cases were all women who had a biopsy for BBD and who subsequently developed breast cancer; controls were individually matched to cases and were women with a biopsy for BBD who did not develop breast cancer in the same follow-up interval as that for the cases. After exclusions, 1,239 records (615 cases and 624 controls) were available for analysis. We used conditional logistic regression to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

Relative to non-proliferative BBD/normal pathology, the multivariable-adjusted odds ratio for proliferative lesions without atypia was 1.45 (95% CI 1.10-1.90), and that for atypical hyperplasia was 5.27 (95% CI 2.29-12.15). The presence of multiple foci of columnar cell hyperplasia and of complex fibroadenoma without atypia was associated with a non-significantly increased risk of breast cancer, whereas sclerosing adenosis, radial scar, and papilloma showed no association with risk.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that, compared to women with normal pathology/non-proliferative disease, women with proliferative disease without atypia have a modestly increased risk of breast cancer, whereas women with atypical hyperplasia have a substantially increased risk.