The cytoarchitecture of the dorsal cochlear nucleus in the 3-month- and 26-month-old C57BL/6 mouse: a Golgi impregnation study

Relationships between neuronal birthdates and tonotopic positions in the mouse cochlear nucleus

Tonotopy is a key anatomical feature of the vertebrate auditory system, but little is known about the mechanisms underlying its development. Since date of birth of a neuron correlates with tonotopic position in the cochlea, we investigated if it also correlates with tonotopic position in the cochlear nucleus (CN). In the cochlea, spiral ganglion neurons are organized in a basal to apical progression along the length of the cochlea based on birthdates, with neurons in the base (responding to high-frequency sounds) born early around mouse embryonic day (E) 9.5-10.5, and those in the apex (responding to low-frequency sounds) born late around E12.5-13.5. Using a low-dose thymidine analog incorporation assay, we examine whether CN neurons are arranged in a spatial gradient according to their birthdates. Most CN neurons are born between E10.5 ānd E13.5, with a peak at E12.5. A second wave of neuron birth was observed in the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) beginning on E14.5 and lasts until E18.5. Large excitatory neurons were born in the first wave, and small local circuit neurons were born in the second. No spatial gradient of cell birth was observed in the DCN. In contrast, neurons in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) were found to be arranged in a dorsal to ventral progression according to their birthdates, which are aligned with the tonotopic axis. Most of these AVCN neurons are endbulb-innervated bushy cells. The correlation between birthdate and tonotopic position suggests testable mechanisms for specification of tonotopic position.

Connexin36 expression in major centers of the auditory system in the CNS of mouse and rat: Evidence for neurons forming purely electrical synapses and morphologically mixed synapses

Electrical synapses formed by gap junctions composed of connexin36 (Cx36) are widely distributed in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Here, we used immunofluorescence methods to document the expression of Cx36 in the cochlear nucleus and in various structures of the auditory pathway of rat and mouse. Labeling of Cx36 visualized exclusively as Cx36-puncta was densely distributed primarily on the somata and initial dendrites of neuronal populations in the ventral cochlear nucleus, and was abundant in superficial layers of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. Other auditory centers displaying Cx36-puncta included the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB), regions surrounding the lateral superior olivary nucleus, the dorsal nucleus of the medial lemniscus, the nucleus sagulum, all subnuclei of the inferior colliculus, and the auditory cerebral cortex. In EGFP-Cx36 transgenic mice, EGFP reporter was detected in neurons located in each of auditory centers that harbored Cx36-puncta. In the ventral cochlear nuclei and the MNTB, many neuronal somata were heavily innervated by nerve terminals containing vesicular glutamate transporter-1 (vglut1) and Cx36 was frequently localized at these terminals. Cochlear ablation caused a near total depletion of vglut1-positive terminals in the ventral cochlear nuclei, with a commensurate loss of labeling for Cx36 around most neuronal somata, but preserved Cx36-puncta at somatic neuronal appositions. The results suggest that electrical synapses formed by Cx36-containing gap junctions occur in most of the widely distributed centers of the auditory system. Further, it appears that morphologically mixed chemical/electrical synapses formed by nerve terminals are abundant in the ventral cochlear nucleus, including those at endbulbs of Held formed by cochlear primary afferent fibers, and those at calyx of Held synapses on MNTB neurons.

Frequency-specific corticofugal modulation of the dorsal cochlear nucleus in mice

The primary auditory cortex (AI) modulates the sound information processing in the lemniscal subcortical nuclei, including the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN), in a frequency-specific manner. The dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) is a non-lemniscal subcortical nucleus but it is tonotopically organized like the AVCN. However, it remains unclear how the AI modulates the sound information processing in the DCN. This study examined the impact of focal electrical stimulation of AI on the auditory responses of the DCN neurons in mice. We found that the electrical stimulation induced significant changes in the best frequency (BF) of DCN neurons. The changes in the BFs were highly specific to the BF differences between the stimulated AI neurons and the recorded DCN neurons. The DCN BFs shifted higher when the AI BFs were higher than the DCN BFs and the DCN BFs shifted lower when the AI BFs were lower than the DCN BFs. The DCN BFs showed no change when the AI and DCN BFs were similar. Moreover, the BF shifts were linearly correlated to the BF differences. Thus, our data suggest that corticofugal modulation of the DCN is also highly specific to frequency information, similar to the corticofugal modulation of the AVCN. The frequency-specificity of corticofugal modulation does not appear limited to the lemniscal ascending pathway.

Distinct cerebellar engrams in short-term and long-term motor learning

Cerebellar motor learning is suggested to be caused by long-term plasticity of excitatory parallel fiber-Purkinje cell (PF-PC) synapses associated with changes in the number of synaptic AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs). However, whether the AMPARs decrease or increase in individual PF-PC synapses occurs in physiological motor learning and accounts for memory that lasts over days remains elusive. We combined quantitative SDS-digested freeze-fracture replica labeling for AMPAR and physical dissector electron microscopy with a simple model of cerebellar motor learning, adaptation of horizontal optokinetic response (HOKR) in mouse. After 1-h training of HOKR, short-term adaptation (STA) was accompanied with transient decrease in AMPARs by 28% in target PF-PC synapses. STA was well correlated with AMPAR decrease in individual animals and both STA and AMPAR decrease recovered to basal levels within 24 h. Surprisingly, long-term adaptation (LTA) after five consecutive daily trainings of 1-h HOKR did not alter the number of AMPARs in PF-PC synapses but caused gradual and persistent synapse elimination by 45%, with corresponding PC spine loss by the fifth training day. Furthermore, recovery of LTA after 2 wk was well correlated with increase of PF-PC synapses to the control level. Our findings indicate that the AMPARs decrease in PF-PC synapses and the elimination of these synapses are in vivo engrams in short- and long-term motor learning, respectively, showing a unique type of synaptic plasticity that may contribute to memory consolidation.

Subcortical auditory structures in the Mongolian gerbil: I. Golgi architecture

By means of the Golgi-Cox and Nissl methods we investigated the cyto- and fiberarchitecture as well as the morphology of neurons in the subcortical auditory structures of the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus), a frequently used animal model in auditory neuroscience. We describe the divisions and subdivisions of the auditory thalamus including the medial geniculate body, suprageniculate nucleus, and reticular thalamic nucleus, as well as of the inferior colliculi, nuclei of the lateral lemniscus, superior olivary complex, and cochlear nuclear complex. In this study, we 1) confirm previous results about the organization of the gerbil's subcortical auditory pathway using other anatomical staining methods (e.g., Budinger et al. [2000] Eur J Neurosci 12:2452-2474); 2) add substantially to the knowledge about the laminar and cellular organization of the gerbil's subcortical auditory structures, in particular about the orientation of their fibrodendritic laminae and about the morphology of their most distinctive neuron types; and 3) demonstrate that the cellular organization of these structures, as seen by the Golgi technique, corresponds generally to that of other mammalian species, in particular to that of rodents.

Noise-induced hearing loss is correlated with alterations in the expression of GABAB receptors and PKC gamma in the murine cochlear nucleus complex

Noise overexposure may induce permanent noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). The cochlear nucleus complex (CNC) is the entry point for sensory information in the central auditory system. Impairments in gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)—mediated synaptic transmission in the CNC have been implicated in the pathogenesis of auditory disorders. However, the role of protein kinase C (PKC) signaling pathway in GABAergic inhibition in the CNC in NIHL remains elusive. Thus, we investigated the alterations of glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67, the chemical marker for GABA-containing neurons), PKC γ subunit (PKCγ) and GABA_B receptor (GABA_BR) expression in the CNC using transgenic GAD67-green fluorescent protein (GFP) knock-in mice, BALB/c mice and C57 mice. Immunohistochemical results indicate that the GFP-labeled GABAergic neurons were distributed in the molecular layer (ML) and fusiform cell layer (FCL) of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN). We found that 69.91% of the GFP-positive neurons in the DCN were immunopositive for both PKCγ and GABA_BR1. The GAD67-positive terminals made contacts with PKCγ/GABA_BR1 colocalized neurons. Then we measured the changes of auditory thresholds in mice after noise exposure for 2 weeks, and detected the GAD67, PKCγ, and GABA_BR expression at mRNA and protein levels in the CNC. With noise over-exposure, there was a reduction in GABA_BR accompanied by an increase in PKCγ expression, but no significant change in GAD67 expression. In summary, our results demonstrate that alterations in the expression of PKCγ and GABA_BRs may be involved in impairments in GABAergic inhibition within the CNC and the development of NIHL.

Sonic hedgehog-associated medulloblastoma arising from the cochlear nuclei of the brainstem

Medulloblastoma is a malignant brain tumor of childhood that comprises at least four molecularly distinct subgroups. We have previously described that cerebellar granule neuron precursors may give rise to the subgroup with a molecular fingerprint of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling. Other recent data indicate that precursor cells within the dorsal brain stem may serve as cellular origins for Wnt-associated medulloblastomas. To see whether Shh-associated medulloblastomas are also able to develop in the dorsal brainstem, we analyzed two lines of transgenic mice with constitutive Shh signaling in hGFAP- and Math1-positive brainstem precursor populations, respectively. Our results show that in both of these lines, medulloblastomas arise from granule neuron precursors of the cochlear nuclei, a derivative of the auditory lower rhombic lip. This region is distinct from derivatives of precerebellar lower rhombic lip where medulloblastomas arise in mice with constitutive-active Wnt signaling. With respect to their histology and the expression of appropriate markers, Shh tumors from the murine cochlear nuclei perfectly resemble human Shh-associated medulloblastomas. Moreover, we find that in a series of 63 human desmoplastic medulloblastomas, 21 (33%) have a very close contact to the cochlear nuclei on MR imaging. In conclusion, we demonstrate that precursors of the murine rhombic lip, which either develop into cerebellar or into cochlear granule neurons, may give rise to Shh-associated medulloblastoma, and this has important implications for the cellular origin of human medulloblastomas.

A rapid method combining Golgi and Nissl staining to study neuronal morphology and cytoarchitecture

The Golgi silver impregnation technique gives detailed information on neuronal morphology of the few neurons it labels, whereas the majority remain unstained. In contrast, the Nissl staining technique allows for consistent labeling of the whole neuronal population but gives very limited information on neuronal morphology. Most studies characterizing neuronal cell types in the context of their distribution within the tissue slice tend to use the Golgi silver impregnation technique for neuronal morphology followed by deimpregnation as a prerequisite for showing that neuron's histological location by subsequent Nissl staining. Here, we describe a rapid method combining Golgi silver impregnation with cresyl violet staining that provides a useful and simple approach to combining cellular morphology with cytoarchitecture without the need for deimpregnating the tissue. Our method allowed us to identify neurons of the facial nucleus and the supratrigeminal nucleus, as well as assessing cellular distribution within layers of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. With this method, we also have been able to directly compare morphological characteristics of neuronal somata at the dorsal cochlear nucleus when labeled with cresyl violet with those obtained with the Golgi method, and we found that cresyl violet-labeled cell bodies appear smaller at high cellular densities. Our observation suggests that cresyl violet staining is inadequate to quantify differences in soma sizes.

Age-related increases in calcium-binding protein immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus of hearing impaired C57BL/6J mice

Aging C57BL/6J (C57) mice (1-30 months old), were used to study calcium-binding protein immunoreactivity (parvalbumin, calbindin and calretinin) in the cochlear nucleus. A quantitative stereological method, the optical fractionator was used to determine the total number of neurons, and the total number of immunostained neurons in the posteroventral- and dorsal cochlear nuclei (PVCN and DCN). A statistically significant age-related decrease of the total number of neurons was found in the PVCN and DCN using Nissl staining. In the DCN, an age-related increase in the total number of parvalbumin-positive neurons was found, while no changes in the total number of calbindin or calretinin positive neurons were demonstrated. In the PVCN, the total number of parvalbumin, calbindin, or calretinin positive neurons remained stable with increasing age. The percentage of parvalbumin, calbindin, and calretinin positive neurons significantly increased in the DCN, and the percentage of parvalbumin and calbindin-positive neurons increased in the PVCN. These findings imply that there is a relative up-regulation of calcium-binding proteins in neurons that had not previously expressed these proteins. This plastic response in the profoundly hearing impaired C57 mouse may be a survival strategy for cochlear nucleus neurons.

Auditory peripheral influences on calcium binding protein immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus during aging in the C57BL/6J mouse

The C57BL/6J (C57) mouse was selected as a suitable model for early presbyacusis to determine if there were correlations between peripheral pathology (spiral ganglion loss, inner and outer hair cell loss) and calcium binding immunoreactivity in the cochlear nucleus during aging. The quantitative stereological method, the optical fractionator, was used for determining the total number of neurons and calcium binding immunopositive neurons (calbindin, parvalbumin and calretinin) during aging in the posteroventral- and dorsal cochlear nucleus (PVCN and DCN) in C57 mice. Comparing 30-month-old to 1-month-old C57 mice, a percent increase in parvalbumin and calbindin immunoreactivity was evident in both the PVCN and DCN. Correlations were made between peripheral pathology (spiral ganglion and inner and outer hair cell loss) and calcium binding protein expression. Significant correlations between cochlear pathology and the percentage of parvalbumin and calretinin immunoreactive neurons were demonstrated in the DCN. Moreover, significant correlations were found between cochlear pathology and parvalbumin and calbindin in the PVCN. In summary, the findings imply that degenerative changes in the auditory periphery can modulate neuronal homeostasis by increasing calcium binding proteins in the PVCN and DCN during aging. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for calcium binding proteins in protecting against age-induced calcium toxicity.

Differences between guinea pig and rat in the dorsal cochlear nucleus: expression of calcium-binding proteins by cartwheel and Purkinje-like cells

This study describes differences between guinea pig and rat in the immunoreactivities for calbindin (CB-IR) and parvalbumin (PV-IR) in cartwheel (CWC) and Purkinje-like (PLC) cells of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN). CWCs are the most important inhibitory interneurons of the DCN. Their soma and dendrites stain intensely for CB-IR in guinea pigs but only weakly and incompletely in rats. In both species, the CWCs do not show PV-IR. PLCs, a rare type of DCN cells often interpreted as displaced cerebellar Purkinje cells misrouted during migration, are known from rat and mouse and are here described for guinea pig DCN. PLCs are intensely and completely stained for CB-IR and PV-IR in guinea pigs. In rats, they stain with similar completeness only for CB-IR, PV-IR being weak and restricted to the cell's soma. Similar staining differences between the two species are seen with the cerebellar Purkinje cells, i.e., PLCs resemble the cerebellar Purkinje cells more than do the CWCs. Based on the present material (and preliminary findings in a primate (marmoset), we speculate that the PLCs have their place in the circuitry of the DCN receiving input via parallel fibers, like the CWCs, and possibly projecting their axon onto the cerebellum.

Synaptic loss in the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus correlates with sensorineural hearing loss in the C57BL/6 mouse model of presbycusis

Between 3 and 25 months of age, light and electron microscopic features of principal neurons in the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus of the C57BL/6 mouse were quantitated. This mouse strain has a genetic defect producing progressive sensorineural hearing loss which starts during young adulthood (2 months of age) with high-frequency sounds. During the second year of life, hearing is severely impaired, progressively involving all frequencies. The hearing loss was documented in the present study by auditory brainstem recordings of the mice at various ages. The cochleas from many of the same animals showed massive loss of both inner and outer hair cells beginning at the base (high-frequency region) and progressing with age along the entire length to the apex (low-frequency region). In the inferior colliculi, there was a significant decrease in the size of principal neurons in the central nucleus. There was a dramatic decrease in the number of synapses of all morphologic types on principal neuronal somas. The percentage of somatic membrane covered by synapses decreased by 67%. A ventral (high frequency) to dorsal (low frequency) gradient of synaptic loss could not be identified within the central nucleus. These synaptic changes may be related to the equally dramatic physiologic changes which have been noted in the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus, in which response properties of neurons normally sensitive to high-frequency sounds become more sensitive to low-frequency sounds. The synaptic loss noted in this study may be due to more than the loss of primary afferent pathways. It may represent alterations of the complex synaptic circuitry related to the central deficits of presbycusis.

Distribution and origin of serotoninergic afferents to guinea pig cochlear nucleus

The distribution of serotoninergic fibers in the guinea pig cochlear nucleus was studied with serotonin immunohistochemistry. In addition, the origin of the serotoninergic fibers was determined by combining the retrograde transport of wheat germ agglutinin-apohorseradish peroxidase (gold conjugated) with serotonin immunohistochemistry. Immunoreactivity was present in varicose and nonvaricose fibers that were unevenly distributed throughout the cochlear nucleus. The fibers were most prominent in the superficial layers of the dorsal cochlear nucleus and the anterior spherical cell area of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus. Although less prominent, serotonin-positive fibers were also present in the remaining part of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus and the posteroventral cochlear nucleus. A few positive fibers were present in the auditory nerve root and the dorsal and intermediate acoustic striae. Double-labeled cells were found throughout the rostral-caudal extent of the serotoninergic system from the caudal linear nucleus to the nucleus raphe pallidus. However, most were confined to the dorsal (52%) and median (18%) raphe nuclei. Some serotoninergic cell groups contained retrogradely labeled cells that were not serotonin immunoreactive, indicating nonauditory afferents to cochlear nucleus containing other neurotransmitter substances. Serotonin may tonically modulate auditory processing within the cochlear nucleus as well as influence certain ascending auditory pathways. Most of the serotonin in the cochlear nucleus comes from superior raphe nuclei that also project to basal ganglia motor systems and limbic structures. Therefore, the effect of serotonin on the cochlear nucleus may be related to level of arousal or behavioral state.

Morphology of the cochlear nucleus in CBA/J mice with chronic, severe sensorineural cochlear pathology induced during adulthood

The effects of chronic cochlear impairment on morphological features of the adult cochlear nucleus (CN) were assessed in CBA/J mice in which severe sensorineural damage had been induced by exposure to intense noise. Sections from various CN subdivisions, stained for Nissl substance and fibers, were quantitatively evaluated in four groups of noise-exposed mice that differed with regard to the age at noise exposure (2, 6, or 11 months), age at the time the CN was evaluated (6, 11, or 24 months), and the duration (chronicity) of sensorineural impairment (4, 5, 13, or 18 months). Like-aged, non-exposed CBA mice were used as controls, so the effects of peripheral damage and aging could be compared. Cochlear damage produced significant changes in CN subdivisions thought to receive the heaviest input from cochlear afferents (anteroventral CN, octopus cell area, dorsal CN layer III). These changes included a reduction of neuropil volume, reductions in neuron size, and increases in neuronal packing density that were complementary to reduced volume in these subdivisions. Effects on neuron number were minimal in all subdivisions. Central changes in noise-exposed mice were absent or diminished in DCN layers I and II, which receive relatively less input from primary fibers. The age at onset and chronicity of damage had little to do with the severity of central effects of cochlear damage. The effects of cochlear damage were not additive with age-related changes seen in the old controls.

Purkinje-like cells in rat cochlear nucleus

A unique class of cells, strongly immunopositive for anti-calbindin D-28 kDa was observed in and near the cochlear nucleus of young adult, male Sprague-Dawley rats. These cells are present in small numbers which are highly variable across animals and inconstant in position. They are preferentially located in the dorsal cochlear nucleus, with occasional examples being present in the ventral cochlear nucleus, as well as in adjacent brainstem locations. They have been referred to in other studies as displaced Purkinje cells or 'Purkinje cell-like cells', and are here designated 'Purkinje-like cells' (PLCs). PLCs have relatively large cell bodies, with thick, heavily spined dendrites, and are typically situated in an immediately subpial position. The dendritic arborization extends into the interior of the nucleus, away from the pial surface, a trajectory opposite in direction to that of the cerebellar Purkinje cells. The intense immunoreactivity exhibited by PLC somata and dendrites when treated with antiserum directed against calbindin is equivalent to that of cerebellar Purkinje cells, and markedly stronger than that of most other cell populations of the cochlear nucleus. However, in tissue treated with anti-parvalbumin, which also strongly labels cerebellar Purkinje cell somata and dendrites, PLC labeling, when present, is relatively weak, limited to the cell bodies and only the base of the dendrites of PLCs, indicating non-equivalence of the two cell types. In addition, the intensity of calbindin immunostaining in the PLCs appears to be more sensitive to glutaraldehyde in any of the fixative solutions than that seen in cerebellar Purkinje cells in the same sections. Of the cell types of the cochlear nucleus, the cartwheel cells would appear to be the most similar to the PLCs on morphological and immunocytochemical grounds. However, the subpial position and average somal dimensions of the PLCs, as well as the relatively modest immunoreactivity of the cartwheel cells for calbindin, rather clearly differentiate the PLCs from this class of neurons. The results of the present study suggest that the PLCs of the cochlear nucleus, although they may arise developmentally as ectopic cerebellar Purkinje cells and maintain certain Purkinje cell characteristics, represent a distinct neuronal cell type in the adult rat cochlear nucleus, exhibiting incomplete overlap of fixation, immunocytochemical and morphological characteristics with both cartwheel cells of the cochlear nucleus and cerebellar Purkinje cells.

The dorsal cochlear nucleus of the adult lurcher mouse is specifically invaded by embryonic grafted Purkinje cells

The fate of embryonic Purkinje cells grafted over the brainstem surface of the adult Lurcher mouse was analyzed using anti-calbindin (CaBP) immunocytochemistry. Purkinje cells are able to migrate specifically into the molecular layer of the host dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCoN) and develop dendritic trees that are practically isoplanar, suggesting synaptic interactions with the parallel fibres of the DCoN. These results provide a new argument in favour of the homology between the cerebellum and the DCoN.

Morphology of the dorsal cochlear nucleus in C57BL/6J and CBA/J mice across the life span

The morphology of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) was evaluated across the life span in inbred C57BL/6J (C57) and CBA/J (CBA) mice using 5 age groups (young adult to very old). C57 mice exhibit progressive cochlear sensorineural pathology and hearing loss during middle age; CBA mice have only modest sensorineural pathology late in life. DCN layers I, II, and III were evaluated histologically with serial sections stained for Nissl and fibers. DCN volume decreased with age in C57 mice, but the change began earliest and was most pronounced in layer III. In CBA mice, volume increased during the first year of life and decreased only in the oldest mice. All major DCN cell types were found in both strains at all ages. There was an age-related decrease in the mean size of neurons in C57 mice that was first observed in layer III. In CBA mice, only a nonsignificant trend toward smaller neurons was observed in the oldest mice. An age-related decline in the number of neurons in layer III (but not in layers I and II) occurred in C57 mice. Aged CBA mice exhibited no significant loss of DCN neurons. Thus, age-related changes in the DCN were much more pronounced in C57 mice than in CBA mice, and the changes in C57 mice were most pronounced in layer III. Because layer III receives most of the DCN's primary auditory input, it would be directly affected by age-related hearing loss and degeneration of spiral ganglion cells in C57 mice. This suggests that the age-related changes observed in DCN layer III of C57 mice are affected by progressive peripheral degenerative changes; when peripheral loss is minimal (CBA mice), less substantial age-related changes are observed.

Glycine immunoreactive projections from the dorsal to the anteroventral cochlear nucleus

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether projections from the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) to the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) use either of two inhibitory transmitters, glycine or GABA. Retrograde HRP labeling of DCN-to-AVCN projection neurons was combined with postembedding immunocytochemistry in the DCN of guinea pigs. Following injections of HRP in the anterior or posterior divisions of AVCN, large numbers of neurons were labeled in the DCN. All of these were located in the deep layer, except for a few granule cells. Nearly all (96%) of the projection neurons were immunoreactive for glycine and most had dendritic and somatic morphologies corresponding to those of elongate neurons (so-called 'corn' cells); only a few resembled small stellate neurons. Few (3%) retrogradely labeled neurons were immunoreactive for GABA. The results suggest that projections from the deep DCN to the AVCN are formed primarily by glycinergic elongate neurons. These projections could have a substantial inhibitory influence on the output of neurons in the AVCN.

Anatomy of the cochlear nuclear complex of guinea pig

The cyto- and fibre-architecture of the cochlear nuclear complex of the guinea-pig has been studied in serial sections using Nissl, Golgi and combined cell-myelin staining of normal material, and a silver degeneration method after cochlear ablation. The nuclear subdivisions and major cell types can be recognised on the basis of those found in the cat, but there are some differences between the two species in the precise distribution and morphology of the neurons. The rostrodorsal part of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) contains predominantly spherical bushy cells, but these cannot be readily divided into large and small types as in the cat. Globular bushy cells are seen in the caudal region of the AVCN, but the majority occur in the posteroventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN), in an area extending from the nerve root right up to the boundary of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN). The octopus cells constitute a distinct region in the most dorsomedial part of the PVCN underneath the DCN. Giant cells are seen scattered around the nerve root region. Multipolar and small cells are seen throughout the non-granular regions of the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) except for the octopus cell area, but occur mainly in the more rostral regions of the PVCN. Small cells occur in greatest abundance in the thin cap area at the dorsal edge of the VCN below a superficial granule cell layer. The latter covers the dorsolateral surface of the VCN, and a lamina of granule cells partially separates the PVCN from the DCN. The DCN can be divided into four layers. The outermost molecular layer (layer 1) is separated from the deeper regions by a prominent layer of granule cells (layer 2) which also contains the pyramidal cells. Molecular layer stellate cells are seen in layer 1 and a staggered row of cartwheel neurons is found at the boundary between layers 1 and 2. Layer 3 contains the basal dendrites of the pyramidal cells and some small (vertical) cells, and is innervated by the descending branches of the cochlear nerve. The deepest layer 4, which contains multipolar cells and giant cells, does not appear to receive this direct cochlear input.

Ultrastructural features of neurons in the C57BL/6J mouse anteroventral cochlear nucleus: young mice versus old mice with chronic presbycusis

Transmission electron microscopy was used to examine "bushy" and "multipolar" neurons in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) of young (2-month-old) and old (2-year-old) C57BL/6J mice, a strain that develops profound peripheral sensorineural auditory impairment during the second year of life. Two features differed with age irrespective of cell type or location within the AVCN: there was an increase in the incidence of neurons with heterochromatic nuclei and an increase in the percent of the neuron occupied by lipofuscin. Two features differed with age in multipolar cells only: there was a decrease in the roundness of nuclei and an increase in the number of nuclear invaginations. Some features differed with age to a greater extent in the dorsal portion of the AVCN: there were decreases in the length of terminals on bushy cells, and in the percentage of soma surface apposed by terminals, and increases in the incidence of neurons contacted by myelinated axons, in mean synaptic vesicle density, and in the amount of lipofuscin in bushy cells. Some features did not differ with age: the mean area of mitochondria, percentage of cytoplasm occupied by mitochondria, size of dense synaptic junctions, and for bushy cells only, nuclear shape and invaginations and width of perinuclear cisternae. Aging per se, chronic presbycusis, and neuronal type play roles in determining age-related changes in AVCN neurons.

Morphology and physiology of cells in slice preparations of the dorsal cochlear nucleus of mice

Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was injected into cells from which intracellular recordings were made in slices of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) in order to correlate physiology with morphology. In general, the morphology of cells labeled intracellularly with HRP corresponded to those made with Golgi impregnations in mice and other mammals. The following cells were labeled: one granule cell, four cartwheel cells, eight fusiform cells, two other cells in the fusiform cell layer, and two tuberculoventral association cells in the deep layers of the DCN. The axon of the granule cell runs parallel to isofrequency laminae with collaterals branching perpendicularly and running along the tonotopic axis. The cartwheel cells have dendrites in the molecular layer that are densely covered with spines. The axon of one cell terminates just dorsally to the cell body. Fusiform cells have the characteristic spiny, apical and smooth, basal dendrites. The basal dendrites are conspicuously oriented parallel to isofrequency laminae. Axons of the fusiform cells exit through the dorsal acoustic stria without branching. The two tuberculoventral association cells in the deep DCN have axons that terminate both in the deep DCN, within the same isofrequency lamina that contains the cell body, and in the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN). Intracellular recordings from 11 of these cells show that they cannot be distinguished on the basis of their responses to intracellularly injected current. All cell types fired large action potentials that were followed by a fast and a slower undershoot, distinguishing them from cells of the VCN but not from one another. Most cells responded to shocks of the auditory nerve root with early EPSPs and later IPSPs. The latencies of EPSPs show that some were monosynaptic and others polysynaptic. That there was no systematic relationship between the latencies of EPSPs and the cell types from which they were recorded shows that shocks to the nerve root may have activated more than just the large, myelinated, auditory nerve fibers.

Response properties of inferior colliculus neurons in middle-aged C57BL/6J mice with presbycusis

Extracellular recordings were obtained from inferior colliculus (IC) neurons in young (2-month) and middle-aged (7-month; 12- to 13-month) C57BL/6J mice in response to contralateral tone and noise stimuli. An age-related progressive loss of spiral ganglion cells, most pronounced near the cochlear base, was observed in the mice, accompanied by severe high frequency hearing loss manifested as elevation of neuronal thresholds, especially in the ventromedial half of the IC. There was a small age-related increase (2% to 11%) in 'sluggish' neurons (auditory, but poorly driven by sound); however, most neurons were well-driven by suprathreshold stimuli. Nine response types were derived from post-stimulus time histograms; they were found in all age groups with little difference in their relative incidence. The percentage of neurons that were spontaneously active increased with age in the central nucleus but not in other subnuclei. Parameters of response areas (range, upper frequency range, best frequency, and rate-best frequency) showed pronounced age differences in the ventromedial half of the IC and minimal differences in the dorsolateral half of the IC. The percentage of neurons with nonmonotonic rate-level functions decreased with age, especially in the IC dorsal cortex.

Effects of the murine mutation 'nervous' on neurons in cerebellum and dorsal cochlear nucleus

'Nervous' mutant mice are presently available on two different genetic background strains which are derived from out-breeding of the original BALB/cGr mutant stock. Light and electron microscopic studies of these mutants demonstrate that cerebellar Purkinje cells and cartwheel neurons of the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCoN) show similar, albeit not identical, cytoplasmic and mitochondrial alterations in both background strains. In the cerebellar cortex, all Purkinje cell perikarya developed a varying number of enlarged and rounded mitochondria, as previously described. Extensive changes were observed in various components of the mitochondrial matrix. As cellular degeneration proceeded, reduction, fragmentation and dilation of cisterns of endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus were evident. Some of the mitochondria underwent a peculiar type of degeneration, i.e. the outer membrane partially or completely dissolved, occasionally accompanied by focal interruptions of the inner membrane. In older adult mutants only 10% of cerebellar Purkinje cells rehained. The few surviving cells displayed varying states, ranging from essentially normal ultrastructure to electron-dense condensation. Many of these cells, in both strains, continued to display greatly enlarged, rounded mitochondrial profiles, indicating a change in the expression of the gene defect resulting from genetic contamination. Criteria for the identification of neuronal cell classes in layers 1 and 2 of murine DCoN were established. Cartwheel neurons in the mutant DCoN presented alterations similar to those observed in cerebellar Purkinje cells. The characteristic mitochondrial anomaly developed and proceeded in cartwheel neurons within a comparable time frame. The vast majority of affected cartwheel cells did not undergo degeneration, however, but continued to possess altered mitochondria into adulthood. The differences between normal and mutant mitochondria in Purkinje and cartwheel were quantified by morphometric analyses. Our findings lend support to the notion of a homology between cerebellar Purkinje cells and DCoN cartwheel cells. These cells represent major elements in two similar spatially related circuits, and share several genetic, structural and neurochemical properties. It is therefore proposed that these two cell populations are derived from closely related precursor cells.

Tonotopic projection from the dorsal to the anteroventral cochlear nucleus of mice

To understand how auditory information is processed in the cochlear nuclei, it is crucial to know what circuitry exists and how it functions. In slice preparations, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) injections into the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) reveal two circuits: a connection between the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) and AVCN and a local circuit confined to the AVCN. Extracellular injection in the AVCN labels a band of cells in the DCN. The labeled cells in the DCN lie within a band of auditory nerve fiber terminals that are labeled by the same injection, showing that the connection from the DCN to the AVCN is frequency specific. The injections into the AVCN also labeled a cluster of neurons in the AVCN dorsal to the injection site. These cells may be interneurons that relay information from areas encoding higher frequencies to areas encoding lower frequencies within the AVCN. In the parasagittal plane, the AVCN is organized along two orthogonal axes that are indicated with HRP labeling of fibers and cell bodies. The tonotopic axis runs approximately dorsoventrally; the isofrequency axis runs approximately rostrocaudally. The axons of labeled DCN neurons and the cluster lie along the tonotopic axis, whereas the labeled auditory nerve fibers define the isofrequency axis. Where they cross is where HRP is taken up by the fibers. The area of uptake is small and lies in the middle of the darkly stained injection site.

Projections from the anterior ventral cochlear nucleus to the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus in young and aging C57BL/6 mice

Projections from the anterior ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) to the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus (ICC) were studied in young and aging C57BL/6 mice. The latter animals demonstrate progressive loss of hearing. Wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP) was injected into the inferior colliculus and retrograde transport to the AVCN sections, quality of labelling, number of labelled neurons adjusted for injection size, or topographic organization of projections. Thus, despite progressing loss of auditory sensitivity, chronic profound hearing loss (oldest animals), and aging, projections from AVCN to ICC remain stable.

Pyramidal neurones of the dorsal cochlear nucleus: a Golgi and computer reconstruction study in cat

The main projection neurones of the dorsal cochlear nucleus, termed pyramidal, bipolar or fusiform cells, have an apical dendritic arbor approaching the ependymal surface of the nucleus and a basal arbor oppositely directed. In Golgi-Del Rio-Hortega material these neurones were studied, with the light microscope, in nonconventional planes of sectioning oriented across or parallel to the main axis of the elongated nucleus. The pyramidal neurones were seen to be flattened across this axis. The size, shape and orientation of 21 cells from six blocks were studied in detail with computer-aided graphic reconstructions including stereo views. Camera lucida drawings of each cell (usually from several sections) were digitized to obtain x and y coordinates while z coordinates (depths in the tissue) were read from the fine focus knob during microscopy and typed interactively during digitization. The z values were corrected for the effects of refractive index differences in the optical system. Since it was the aim of this study to focus on some fundamental principles of structure and arrangement of pyramidal cells in the dorsal cochlear nucleus rather than on topographic variations, only the middle, regularly built part of the nucleus was examined. Towards the ends of the nucleus the architecture is less regular and will require separate analysis. Measurements of arbor and total cell height and of dendritic length are given. The height of the apical and basal arbor in individual cells showed considerable reciprocity. The total dendritic length was up to 8300 micron (average 6536 micron). The basal arbors always proved to be conspicuously flattened; roughly, the width varied between about 300 and 700 micron (average 489 micron) and the thickness between 65 and 105 micron (average 80 micron). The apical arbors were also often flattened but much less and with a greater variability than the basal arbors (average width 319 micron, thickness 115 micron). The two arbors of individual cells were practically coplanar, the arbor planes showing only moderate angularity (bend) and/or torsion relative to each other (angularity maximum 10 degrees, average 5 degrees; torsion maximum 18 degrees, average 6 degrees). The mutual orientation of cells from the same block was examined. The planes through the basal arbors proved to be very parallel, the differences in orientation angles being between 10 and 0 degrees with rare exceptions. Clearly flattened, apical arbors showed a somewhat greater spread.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Stellate neurons in rat dorsal cochlear nucleus studies with combined Golgi impregnation and electron microscopy: synaptic connections and mutual coupling by gap junctions

Stellate neurons in the outer two layers of the rat dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) were studied by the Golgi-EM method. Stellate cell bodies are usually spherical or ovoidal and range from 9 microns to 14 microns in mean diameter. The smallest cells are situated underneath the ependymal layer and the largest cells in layer 2. Primary dendrites are short, thin and smooth and arise abruptly from the perikaryon, without a tapering main stem. Meandering secondary and tertiary dendrites extend in all directions, carry few pleomorphic spines lacking a spine apparatus and often show artifactual beading. The axons are impregnated only for a short distance (10-45 microns). The nucleus is indented, the nucleolus varies in position, and the chromatin, evenly dispersed in the centre, forms small clumps along the nuclear envelope. The cytoplasm is rich in free polyribosomes and contains scattered cisterns of granular endoplasmic reticulum. Varicosities of thin fibres, containing round synaptic vesicles, form asymmetric synapses on perikarya, dendritic shafts and spines of stellate cells. Such fibres run parallel to the long axis of the DCN or are oriented radially and are interpreted as axons of cochlear granule cells. Two kinds of bouton containing pleomorphic vesicles, one kind electron lucent and the other electron dense, form symmetric synapses on perikarya and dendritic shafts of stellate cells. The lucent boutons occur more frequently than the dense boutons, especially on the distal dendritic branches. The boutons with pleomorphic vesicles presumably represent terminals of local circuit neurons, probably the stellate and cartwheel cells. In addition, stellate cells show numerous dendro-somatic and dendro-dendritic appositions characterized by gap junctions and puncta adhaerentia. Most of the dendrites involved in these appositions resemble stellate cell dendrites and it is concluded that DCN stellate cells are coupled electrotonically with one another. The axons of stellate cells acquire a thin myelin sheath. Since the Golgi impregnation did not stain axons of stellate cells past this point, we were unable to demonstrate the synaptic targets of stellate cells.

Cartwheel neurons of the dorsal cochlear nucleus: a Golgi-electron microscopic study in rat

Cartwheel neurons in rat dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) were studied by Golgi impregnation-electron microscopy. Usually situated in layers 1-2, cartwheel neurons (10-14 micrometers in mean cell body diameter) have dendritic trees predominantly in layer 1. The dendrites branch at wide angles. Most primary dendrites are short, nontapering, and bear only a few sessile spines. Secondary and tertiary dendrites are short, curved, and spine-laden. The perikaryon forms symmetric synapses with at least two kinds of boutons containing pleomorphic vesicles. The euchromatic nucleus is indented and has an eccentric nucleolus. The cytoplasm shows several small Nissl bodies, a conspicuous Golgi apparatus, and numerous subsurface and cytoplasmic cisterns of endoplasmic reticulum with a narrow lumen, joined by mitochondria in single or multiple assemblies. In primary dendrites mitochondria are situated peripherally, while in distal branches they become ubiquitous and relatively more numerous. Dendritic shafts usually form symmetric synapses with boutons that contain pleomorphic vesicles. The majority of the dendritic spines are provided with a vesiculo-saccular spine apparatus. All dendritic spines have asymmetric synapses. Most of these are formed with varicosities of thin, unmyelinated fibers (presumably axons of granule cells) running parallel to the long axis of the DCN or radially. These varicosities contain round, clear synaptic vesicles. On the initial axon segment few symmetric synapses are present. The axon acquires a thin myelin sheath after a short trajectory. Cartwheel neurons outnumber all other neurons in layers 1-2 (with the exception of granule cells), and presumably correspond to type C cells with thinly myelinated axons described by Lorente de Nó. The axons of these neurons provide a dense plexus in the superficial layers without leaving the DCN. The possible functional role of cartwheel neurons is discussed.