TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Cross-Linked with Branched Polyethyleneimine: Nanostructured Adsorbent Sponges for Water Remediation

Bio-Based Materials as a Sustainable Solution for the Remediation of Contaminated Marine Sediments: An LCA Case Study

Contaminated sediments may induce long-term risks to humans and ecosystems due to the accumulation of priority and emerging inorganic and organic pollutants having toxic and bio-accumulation properties that could become a secondary pollution source. This study focused on the screening of novel bio-based materials to be used in the decontamination of marine sediments considering technical and environmental criteria. It aimed to compare the environmental impacts of cellulose-based adsorbents produced at lab scale by using different syntheses protocols that involved cellulose functionalization by oxidation and branching, followed by structuring of an aerogel-like material via Soxhlet extraction and freeze-drying or their combination. As model pollutants, we used 4-nitrobenzaldehyde, 4-nitrophenol, methylene blue, and two heavy metals, i.e., cadmium and chromium. When comparing the three materials obtained by only employing the Soxhlet extractor with different solvents (without freeze-dying), it was observed that the material obtained with methanol did not have a good structure and was rigid and more compact than the others. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted to evaluate the environmental performance of the novel materials. Apart from the hierarchical categorization of the materials based on their technical and environmental performance in eliminating organic pollutants and heavy metal ions, it was demonstrated that the cellulose-based material obtained via Soxhlet extraction with ethanol was a better choice, since it had lower environmental impacts and highest adsorption capacity for the model pollutants. LCA is a useful tool to optimize the sustainability of sorbent materials alongside lab-scale experiments and confirms that the right direction to produce new performant and sustainable adsorbent materials involves not only choosing wastes as starting materials, but also optimizing the consumption of electricity used for the production processes. The main results also highlight the need for precise data in LCA studies based on lab-scale processes and the potential for small-scale optimization to reduce the environmental impacts.

Reproductive toxicity assessment of cellulose nanofibers, citric acid, and branched polyethylenimine in sea urchins: Eco-design of nanostructured cellulose sponge framework (Part B)

In the framework of a safe-by-design approach, we previously assessed the eco-safety of nanostructured cellulose sponge (CNS) leachate on sea urchin reproduction. It impaired gamete quality, gamete fertilization competence, and embryo development possibly due to the leaching of chemical additives used during the CNS synthesis process. To extend this observation and identify the component(s) that contribute to CNS ecotoxicity, in the present study, we individually screened the cytotoxic effects on sea urchin Arbacia lixula and Paracentrotus lividus gametes and embryos of the three main constituents of CNS, namely cellulose nanofibers, citric acid, and branched polyethylenimine. The study aimed to minimize any potential safety risk of these components and to obtain an eco-safe CNS. Among the three CNS constituents, branched polyethylenimine resulted in the most toxic agent. Indeed, it affected the physiology and fertilization competence of male and female gametes as well as embryo development in both sea urchin species. These results are consistent with those previously reported for CNS leachate. Moreover, the characterisation of CNS leachate confirmed the presence of detectable branched polyethylenimine in the conditioned seawater even though in a very limited amount. Altogether, these data indicate that the presence of branched polyethylenimine is a cause-effect associated with a significant risk in CNS formulations due to its leaching upon contact with seawater. Nevertheless, the suggested safety protocol consisting of consecutive leaching treatments and conditioning of CNS in seawater can successfully ameliorate the CNS ecotoxicity while maintaining the efficacy of its sorbent properties supporting potential environmental applications.

Recent advances in TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers: Oxidation mechanism, characterization, properties and applications

Cellulose is the richest renewable polymer source on the earth. TEMPO-mediated oxidized cellulose nanofibers are deduced from enormously available wood biomass and functionalized with carboxyl groups. The preparation procedure of TOCNFs is more environmentally friendly compared to other cellulose, for example, MFC and CNCs. Due to the presence of functional carboxyl groups, TOCNF-based materials have been studied widely in different fields, including biomedicine, wastewater treatment, bioelectronics and others. In this review, the TEMPO oxidation mechanism, the properties and applications of TOCNFs are elaborated. Most importantly, the recent advanced applications and the beneficial role of TOCNFs in the various abovementioned fields are discussed. Furthermore, the performances and research progress on the fabrication of TOCNFs are summarized. It is expected that this timely review will help further research on the invention of novel material from TOCNFs and its applications in different advanced fields, including biomedicine, bioelectronics, wastewater treatment, and the energy sector.

Silver Nanoparticles Supported onto TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Nanofibers for Promoting Cd2+ Cation Adsorption

Nanocellulose constitutes a sustainable and biobased solution both as an efficient sorbent material for water treatment and as support for other inorganic nanomaterials with sorbent properties. Herein, we report the synthesis of a nanocomposite by deposition of in situ-generated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) onto TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNFs). Following an in-depth analytical investigation, we unveil for the first time the key role of AgNPs in enhancing the adsorption efficiency of TOCNF toward Cd2+ ions, chosen as model heavy metal contaminants. The obtained nanocomposite shows a value of Cd2+ sorption capacity at equilibrium from 150 mg L-1 ion aqueous solutions of ∼116 mg g-1 against the value of 78 mg g-1 measured for TOCNF alone. A combination of field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses suggests that Cd2+ ions are mainly adsorbed in the neighborhood of AgNPs. However, XPS characterization allows us to conclude that the role of AgNPs relies on increasing the exposure of carboxylic groups with respect to the original TOCNF, suggesting that these groups are still responsible for absorption. In fact, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) analysis of the Cd-K edge excludes a direct interaction between Ag0 and Cd2+, supporting the XPS results and confirming the coordination of the latter with carboxyl groups.

Cellulose phosphonate/polyethyleneimine nano-porous composite remove toxic Pb(II) and Cu(II) from water in a short time

Current cellulose-based adsorbents suffer from the drawbacks of low adsorption capacity or slow adsorption rate for heavy metal ions. It is imperative to prepare new cellulose-based materials to improve the adsorption ability. In this work, we aim to introduce phosphonate groups to improve the adsorption ability of cellulose and select polyethyleneimine (PEI) for synergistic adsorption. A novel cellulose phosphonate/polyethyleneimine composite (MCCP-PEI) is prepared via the Mannich reaction. The structure and composition of MCCP-PEI are characterized by various advanced microscopy and spectroscopy techniques, and the results show that MCCP-PEI possesses abundant nano-porous structure, strong chelating sites, and excellent hydrophilicity. Besides, the adsorption behavior of MCCP-PEI for heavy metals has been systematically investigated. The results show that the adsorbent can quickly remove toxic Cu(II) and Pb(II) from water within 15 min and 20 min, respectively. The saturated adsorption capacity for Cu(II) and Pb(II) is 250.0 and 534.7 mg·g-1, respectively. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis combined with Density Functional Theory calculations reveal that the adsorption mechanism is chemical complexation and electrostatic attraction, and the phosphonate group plays a key role in the adsorption process.

Nanocellulose-based composite aerogels toward the environmental protection: Preparation, modification and applications

Nanocellulose aerogel has the advantages of porosity, low density and high specific surface area, which can effectively realize the adsorption and treatment of wastewater waste gas. The methods of preparing nanocellulose mainly include mechanical, chemical and biological methods. Nanocellulose is formed into nanocellulose aerogel after gelation, solvent replacement and drying processes. Based on the advantages of easy modification of nanocellulose aerogels, nanocellulose aerogels can be functionalized with conductive fillers, reinforcing fillers and other materials to give nanocellulose aerogels in electrical, mechanical and other properties. Through functionalization, the properties of nanocellulose composite aerogel such as hydrophobicity and adsorption are improved, and the aerogel is endowed with the ability of electrical conductivity and electromagnetic shielding. Through functionalization, the applicability and general applicability of nanocellulose composite aerogel in the field of environmental protection are improved. In this paper, the preparation and functional modification methods of nanocellulose aerogels are reviewed, and the application prospects of nanocellulose composite aerogels in common environmental protection fields such as dye adsorption, heavy metal ion adsorption, gas adsorption, electromagnetic shielding, and oil-water separation are specifically reviewed, and new solutions are proposed.

Highly Selective Fluorescent Sensors: Polyethylenimine Derivatives of Triphenylamine and Coumarin for GTP and ATP Interaction via Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy

Chemical derivatives of polyethylenimine (PEI) receptors with either triphenylamine (TPA) or 7-hydroxy-4-methyl-coumarin (Cou) form stable complexes with adenine and guanine nucleotides in water. The host-guest complex modulation is found to be based on noncovalent molecular interactions such as π-π stacking and hydrogen bonding, which are dependent on the aromatic moieties attached to the polyaminic (PEI) backbone. PEI-TPA acts as a chemosensor with a recognition driving force based on aggregation-induced emission (AIE), involving π-π interaction between the nucleic base and TPA. It detects GTP by a chelation enhancement quenching effect of fluorescence (CHEQ) with a measured logarithm stability constant, log β = 7.7. By varying the chemical characteristics of the fluorophore, as in the PEI-Cou system, the driving force for recognition changes from a π-π interaction to an electrostatic interaction. The coumarin derivative detects ATP with a log β value one order of magnitude higher than that for GTP, allowing for the selective recognition of the two nucleotides in a 100% aqueous solution. Furthermore, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) allows for a correlation between the selectivity of PEI-TPA toward nucleotides and the morphology of the structures formed upon ATP and GTP recognition. This study offers valuable insights into the design of receptors for the selective recognition of nucleotides in water.

Low temperature-resistant superhydrophobic and elastic cellulose aerogels derived from seaweed solid waste as efficient oil traps for oil/water separation

Aerogel has excellent application potential in adsorption, heat preservation, and other areas due to its typical advantages of low density and high porosity. However, there are several issues with the use of aerogel in oil/water separation, including weak mechanical qualities and challenges in eliminating organic contaminants at low temperature. Inspired by cellulose Iα, which has excellent performance at low temperature, this study used cellulose Iα nanofibers extracted from seaweed solid waste as the skeleton, through covalent cross-linked with ethylene imine polymer (PEI) and hydrophobic modification of 1, 4-phenyl diisocyanate (MDI), supplemented by freeze-drying technology to form three-dimensional sheet, and successfully obtained cellulose aerogels derived from seaweed solid waste (SWCA). The compression test shows that the maximum compressive stress of SWCA is 61 kPa, and the initial performance still maintains 82% after 40 cryogenic compression cycles. In addition, the contact angles of water and oil on the surface of the SWCA were 153° and 0°, respectively, and the stable hydrophobic time in simulated seawater is more than 3 h. By combining the elasticity and superhydrophobicity/superoleophilicity, the SWCA with an oil absorption capacity of up to 11-30 times its mass, might be utilized repeatedly for the separation of an oil/water mixture.

Study on film forming characteristic of ε-polylysine grafted chitosan through TEMPO oxidation system and its preservation effects for pork fillet

The present study synthesized a new type of ε-polylysine (PL) modified chitosan film (TO-CH-PL) through TEMPO (2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine) oxidation system. Firstly, the physicochemical properties of the TO-CH-PL were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectrometer analysis. Results proved that PL was successfully grafted onto chitosan molecules. Based on the water vapor, oxygen permeability, and mechanical analysis, the TO-CH-PL film demonstrated higher physical properties than chitosan and PE films. Secondly, the TO-CH-PL film's preservation effect on pork fillets was evaluated. Due to the significant retardation of growth of the aerobic plate count (APC), total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), as well as the changes of pH and color in packaged pork, TO-CH-PL film exhibited better preservation effects for the pork samples. According to the criteria of TVBN values (<15 mg/100 g), compared with CH and PE films, TO-CH-PL film can prolong the shelf life of pork for 2 to 3 days. Therefore, PL-modified chitosan films could be introduced as an alternative method to maintain the quality indices and extend the shelf life of pork during refrigerated storage.

Comparison between nanocellulose-polyethylenimine composites synthesis methods towards multiple water pollutants removal: A review

Nanocellulose/polyethylenimine composites have attracted growing attention due to their versatility as new materials for application in different fields. Water remediation is one of the traditional applications of these composites and their investigation as adsorbents for single water pollutants is well established. However, most water resources such as rivers, lakes, and even oceans contain complex mixtures of pollutants. Despite several recently published reviews on water purification technology, they only focused on these material as single pollutant removers and hardly mentioned their capacity to simultaneously recover multiple pollutants. Therefore, there is still a gap in the archived literature considering nanocellulose/polyethylenimine composites targeting water remediation with multiple water pollutants. In this review, methods for synthesizing such composites are classified and compared according to the mechanism of reactions, such as chemical crosslinking and physical adsorption, while outlining advantages and limitations. Then, the water pollutants mainly targeted by those composites are discussed in detail to expound the relationship between the synthesis method and the type and adsorption capacity. Finally, the last section presents challenges and opportunities of these nanocellulose/polyethylenimine composites as emerging sorbents for sustainable multiple water pollutants purification technologies. This review aims to lay out the basis for future developments of these composites for multiple water pollutants.

Eco-Friendly Engineered Nanomaterials Coupled with Filtering Fine-Mesh Net as a Promising Tool to Remediate Contaminated Freshwater Sludges: An Ecotoxicity Investigation

The use of eco-friendly engineered nanomaterials represents a recent solution for an effective and safe treatment of contaminated dredging sludge. In this study, an eco-designed engineered material based on cross-linked nanocellulose (CNS) was applied for the first time to decontaminate a real matrix from heavy metals (namely Zn, Ni, Cu, and Fe) and other undesired elements (mainly Ba and As) in a lab-scale study, with the aim to design a safe solution for the remediation of contaminated matrices. Contaminated freshwater sludge was treated with CNS coupled with a filtering fine-mesh net, and the obtained waters were tested for acute and sublethal toxicity. In order to check the safety of the proposed treatment system, toxicity tests were conducted by exposing the bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri and the crustacean Heterocypris incongruens, while subtoxicity biomarkers such as lysosomal membrane stability, genetic, and chromosomal damage assessment were performed on the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha. Dredging sludge was found to be genotoxic, and such genotoxicity was mitigated by the combined use of CNS and a filtering fine-mesh net. Chemical analyses confirmed the results by highlighting the abetment of target contaminants, indicating the present model as a promising tool in freshwater sludge nanoremediation.

Pd-Loaded Cellulose NanoSponge as a Heterogeneous Catalyst for Suzuki-Miyaura Coupling Reactions

The (eco)design and synthesis of durable heterogeneous catalysts starting from renewable sources derived from biomass waste represents an important step for reducing environmental impacts of organic transformations. Herein, we report the efficient loading of Pd(II) ions on an eco-safe cellulose-based organic support (CNS), obtained by thermal cross-linking between TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers and branched polyethyleneimine in the presence of citric acid. A 22.7% w/w Pd-loading on CNS was determined by the ICP-OES technique, while the metal distribution on the xerogel was evidenced by SEM-EDS analysis. XPS analysis confirmed the direct chelation of Pd(II) ions by means of the high number of amino groups present in the network, so that further functionalization of the support with specific ligands was not necessary. The new composite turned to be an efficient heterogeneous pre-catalyst for promoting Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions between aryl halides and phenyl boronic acid in water, obtaining yields higher than 90% in 30 min, by operating in a microwave reactor at 100 °C and with just 2% w/w of CNS-Pd catalyst with respect to aryl halides (4.5‱ for Pd). At the end of first reaction cycle, Pd(II) ions on the support resulted in being reduced to Pd(0) while maintaining the same catalytic efficiency. In fact, no leaching was observed at the end of reactions, and five cycles of recycling and reusing of CNS-Pd catalyst provided excellent results in terms of yields and selectivity in the desired products.

NMR investigation on the thermogelation of partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide/polyethylenimine mixtures

Since the introduction of polyethylenimine (PEI)/acrylamide-based polymer gel systems in the late 90's, the literature knowledge on the crosslinking mechanisms between the various polymers (PAM, PHPA, and PatBA) and the crosslinker (PEI) was only limited to observations on gelation times and gel strength variations compared to other gel systems. In this paper, classic proton and carbon nuclear magnetic resonance "NMR" experiments and advanced 2D DOSY and NOESY techniques were employed for studying the interactions between the amine groups of PEI and amide or carboxylate groups of partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide (PHPA). Among the many possibilities, we showed that the interaction occurring during thermogelation is mainly due to covalent bonding. The latter results from a transamidification reaction between the polymer amide groups and the primary amines of the crosslinker. The reaction, at high temperatures, was accompanied by some hydrolysis of the polymer amide groups. Consequently, the kinetics of the reaction and hydrolysis were evaluated and fitted using pseudo first-order equations where the hydrolysis kinetics was found to be three times lower than that of the reaction.

Selective Oxidation of Cellulose-A Multitask Platform with Significant Environmental Impact

Raw cellulose, or even agro-industrial waste, have been extensively used for environmental applications, namely industrial water decontamination, due to their effectiveness, availability, and low production cost. This was a response to the increasing societal demand for fresh water, which made the purification of wastewater one of the major research issue for both academic and industrial R&D communities. Cellulose has undergone various derivatization reactions in order to change the cellulose surface charge density, a prerequisite condition to delaminate fibers down to nanometric fibrils through a low-energy process, and to obtain products with various structures and properties able to undergo further processing. Selective oxidation of cellulose, one of the most important methods of chemical modification, turned out to be a multitask platform to obtain new high-performance, versatile, cellulose-based materials, with many other applications aside from the environmental ones: in biomedical engineering and healthcare, energy storage, barrier and sensing applications, food packaging, etc. Various methods of selective oxidation have been studied, but among these, (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl) (TEMPO)-mediated and periodate oxidation reactions have attracted more interest due to their enhanced regioselectivity, high yield and degree of substitution, mild conditions, and the possibility to further process the selectively oxidized cellulose into new materials with more complex formulations. This study systematically presents the main methods commonly used for the selective oxidation of cellulose and provides a survey of the most recent reports on the environmental applications of oxidized cellulose, such as the removal of heavy metals, dyes, and other organic pollutants from the wastewater.

Insights into the Role of Biopolymer-Based Xerogels in Biomedical Applications

Xerogels are advanced, functional, porous materials consisting of ambient, dried, cross-linked polymeric networks. They possess characteristics such as high porosity, great surface area, and an affordable preparation route; they can be prepared from several organic and inorganic precursors for numerous applications. Owing to their desired properties, these materials were found to be suitable for several medical and biomedical applications; the high drug-loading capacity of xerogels and their ability to maintain sustained drug release make them highly desirable for drug delivery applications. As biopolymers and chemical-free materials, they have been also utilized in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their high biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, and non-cytotoxicity. Biopolymers have the ability to interact, cross-link, and/or trap several active agents, such as antibiotic or natural antimicrobial substances, which is useful in wound dressing and healing applications, and they can also be used to trap antibodies, enzymes, and cells for biosensing and monitoring applications. This review presents, for the first time, an introduction to biopolymeric xerogels, their fabrication approach, and their properties. We present the biological properties that make these materials suitable for many biomedical applications and discuss the most recent works regarding their applications, including drug delivery, wound healing and dressing, tissue scaffolding, and biosensing.

Zinc- and Copper-Loaded Nanosponges from Cellulose Nanofibers Hydrogels: New Heterogeneous Catalysts for the Synthesis of Aromatic Acetals

Herein we report the synthesis of cellulose-based metal-loaded nano-sponges and their application as heterogeneous catalysts in organic synthesis. First, the combination in water solution of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNF) with branched polyethyleneimine (bPEI) and citric acid (CA), and the thermal treatment of the resulting hydrogel, leads to the synthesis of an eco-safe micro- and nano-porous cellulose nano-sponge (CNS). Subsequently, by exploiting the metal chelation characteristics of CNS, already extensively investigated in the field of environmental decontamination, this material is successfully loaded with Cu (II) or Zn (II) metal ions. Efficiency and homogeneity of metal-loading is confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis with an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detector and by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis. The resulting materials perform superbly as heterogeneous catalysts for promoting the reaction between aromatic aldehydes and alcohols in the synthesis of aromatic acetals, which play a fundamental role as intermediates in organic synthesis. Optimized conditions allow one to obtain conversions higher than 90% and almost complete selectivity toward acetal products, minimizing, and in some cases eliminating, the formation of carboxylic acid by-products. ICP-OES analysis of the reaction medium allows one to exclude any possible metal-ion release, confirming that catalysis undergoes under heterogeneous conditions. The new metal-loaded CNS can be re-used and recycled five times without losing their catalytic activity.

Adsorption of Nd(iii) on a multistage porous imprinted chitosan composite membrane

The separation and recovery of neodymium from industrial pollutants and environmental sewage has become a problem of concern.

GD, Alexis F, Whitehead DC. Scaled Synthesis of Polyamine-Modified Cellulose Nanocrystals from Bulk Cotton and Their Use for Capturing Volatile Organic Compounds

We have previously demonstrated that cellulose nanocrystals modified with poly(ethylenimine) (PEI-f-CNC) are capable of capturing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with malodors. In this manuscript, we describe our efforts to develop a scalable synthesis of these materials from bulk cotton. This work culminated in a reliable protocol for the synthesis of unmodified cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from bulk cotton on a 0.5 kg scale. Additionally, we developed a protocol for the modification of the CNCs by means of sequential 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO) oxidation and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) coupling to modify their surface with poly(ethylenimine) on a 100 g scale. Subsequently, we evaluated the performance of the PEI-f-CNC materials that were prepared in a series of VOC capture experiments. First, we demonstrated their efficacy in capturing volatile fatty acids emitted at a rendering plant when formulated as packed-bed filter cartridges. Secondly, we evaluated the potential to use aqueous PEI-f-CNC suspensions as a spray-based delivery method for VOC remediation. In both cases, the PEI-f-CNC formulations reduced detectable malodor VOCs by greater than 90%. The facile scaled synthesis of these materials and their excellent performance at VOC remediation suggest that they may emerge as a useful strategy for the remediation of VOCs associated with odor.

Cellular Responses Induced by Zinc in Zebra Mussel Haemocytes. Loss of DNA Integrity as a Cellular Mechanism to Evaluate the Suitability of Nanocellulose-Based Materials in Nanoremediation

Zinc environmental levels are increasing due to human activities, posing a threat to ecosystems and human health. Therefore, new tools able to remediate Zn contamination in freshwater are highly recommended. Specimens of Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) were exposed for 48 h and 7 days to a wide range of ZnCl2 nominal concentrations (1-10-50-100 mg/L), including those environmentally relevant. Cellulose-based nanosponges (CNS) were also tested to assess their safety and suitability for Zn removal from freshwater. Zebra mussels were exposed to 50 mg/L ZnCl2 alone or incubated with 1.25 g/L of CNS (2 h) and then removed by filtration. The effect of Zn decontamination induced by CNS has been verified by the acute toxicity bioassay Microtox®. DNA primary damage was investigated by the Comet assay; micronuclei frequency and nuclear morphological alterations were assessed by Cytome assay in mussels' haemocytes. The results confirmed the genotoxic effect of ZnCl2 in zebra mussel haemocytes at 48 h and 7-day exposure time. Zinc concentrations were measured in CNS, suggesting that cellulose-based nanosponges were able to remove Zn(II) by reducing its levels in exposure waters and soft tissues of D. polymorpha in agreement with the observed restoration of genetic damage exerted by zinc exposure alone.

Eco-Interactions of Engineered Nanomaterials in the Marine Environment: Towards an Eco-Design Framework

Marine nano-ecotoxicology has emerged with the purpose to assess the environmental risks associated with engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) among contaminants of emerging concerns entering the marine environment. ENMs’ massive production and integration in everyday life applications, associated with their peculiar physical chemical features, including high biological reactivity, have imposed a pressing need to shed light on risk for humans and the environment. Environmental safety assessment, known as ecosafety, has thus become mandatory with the perspective to develop a more holistic exposure scenario and understand biological effects. Here, we review the current knowledge on behavior and impact of ENMs which end up in the marine environment. A focus on titanium dioxide (n-TiO₂) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), among metal-based ENMs massively used in commercial products, and polymeric NPs as polystyrene (PS), largely adopted as proxy for nanoplastics, is made. ENMs eco-interactions with chemical molecules including (bio)natural ones and anthropogenic pollutants, forming eco- and bio-coronas and link with their uptake and toxicity in marine organisms are discussed. An ecologically based design strategy (eco-design) is proposed to support the development of new ENMs, including those for environmental applications (e.g., nanoremediation), by balancing their effectiveness with no associated risk for marine organisms and humans.

Underwater suspended bifunctionalized polyethyleneimine-based sponge for selective removal of anionic pollutants from aqueous solution

Highly selective and efficient removal of ionic pollutants, including ionic organic compounds and heavy metal ions from water, is still a huge challenge due to the complex nature of polluted water. To meet this challenge, we presented the synthesis of bifunctionalized polyethyleneimine-based sponges through cryo-polymerization via BDDE as the crosslinker followed by bifunctional modification with glycidyl trimethylammonium chloride (GTAC) and phenyl glycidyl ether (PGE), which simultaneously afford quaternary ammonium cation (strongly basic and hydrophilic) and phenyl (hydrophobic) functionalities, respectively. As a result, a hybrid hydrophilic-hydrophobic sponge is generated that could stably be suspended underwater due to the co-operative effect of the water-absorbing hydrophilic domain and the hydrophobic domain generating buoyancy. The quaternized and phenyl-functionalized PEI-based sponge (S_QP-PEI) demonstrated highly selective and efficient removal of anionic pollutants from water, including diclofenac sodium (DIC), methyl orange (MO) and chromium (Cr(VI)) with co-existing interferences. The Langmuir isotherms revealed the maximum adsorption capacities of 342.7 mg/g, 491.9 mg/g, and 242.7 mg/g for DIC, MO, and Cr(VI), respectively. The studies of adsorption mechanism suggested that the bifunctional S_QP-PEI sponge indeed afford both strong anion-exchange interaction and π-π interaction toward organic pollutants DIC and MO, and the strong anion-exchange interaction can be the dominated adsorption mechanism for anionic DIC, MO and Cr(VI) species. The suspended S_QP-PEI also demonstrated excellent reusability, which shows the potential of S_QP-PEI for real applications.

In silico prediction of the in vitro behavior of polymeric gene delivery vectors

Non-viral gene delivery vectors have increasingly come under the spotlight, but their performaces are still far from being satisfactory. Therefore, there is an urgent need for forecasting tools and screening methods to enable the development of ever more effective transfectants. Here, coarse-grained (CG) models of gold standard transfectant poly(ethylene imine)s (PEIs) have been profitably used to investigate and highlight the effect of experimentally-relevant parameters, namely molecular weight (2 vs. 10 kDa) and topologies (linear vs. branched), protonation state, and ammine-to-phosphate ratios (N/Ps), on the complexation and the gene silencing efficiency of siRNA molecules. The results from the in vitro screening of cationic polymers and conditions were used to validate the in silico platform that we developed, such that the hits which came out of the CG models were of high practical relevance. We show that our in silico platform enables to foresee the most suitable conditions for the complexation of relevant siRNA-polycation assemblies, thereby providing a reliable predictive tool to test bench transfectants in silico, and foster the design and development of gene delivery vectors.

The Era of Nanomaterials: A Safe Solution or a Risk for Marine Environmental Pollution?

In recent years, the application of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in environmental remediation gained increasing attention. Due to their large surface area and high reactivity, ENMs offer the potential for the efficient removal of pollutants from environmental matrices with better performances compared to conventional techniques. However, their fate and safety upon environmental application, which can be associated with their release into the environment, are largely unknown. It is essential to develop systems that can predict ENM interactions with biological systems, their overall environmental and human health impact. Until now, Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools have been employed to investigate ENMs potential environmental impact, from raw material production, design and to their final disposal. However, LCA studies focused on the environmental impact of the production phase lacking information on their environmental impact deriving from in situ employment. A recently developed eco-design framework aimed to fill this knowledge gap by using ecotoxicological tools that allow the assessment of potential hazards posed by ENMs to natural ecosystems and wildlife. In the present review, we illustrate the development of the eco-design framework and review the application of ecotoxicology as a valuable strategy to develop ecosafe ENMs for environmental remediation. Furthermore, we critically describe the currently available ENMs for marine environment remediation and discuss their pros and cons in safe environmental applications together with the need to balance benefits and risks promoting an environmentally safe nanoremediation (ecosafe) for the future.

2D Correlation Spectroscopy (2DCoS) Analysis of Temperature-Dependent FTIR-ATR Spectra in Branched Polyethyleneimine/TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Nano-Fiber Xerogels

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in attenuated total reflectance geometry (FTIR-ATR), combined with a 2D correlation analysis, was here employed to investigate temperature-induced spectral changes occurring in a particular type of novel cellulosic-based nano-material prepared using 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-piperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) oxidized and ultra-sonicated cellulose nano-fibers (TOUS-CNFs) as three-dimensional scaffolds, and branched polyethyleneimine (bPEI) as cross-linking agent. The aim was to highlight the complex sequential events involving the different functional groups of the polymeric network, as well as to gain insight into the interplay between the amount of bPEI and the resulting sponge-like material, upon increasing temperature. In this framework, synchronous and asynchronous 2D spectra were computed and analyzed in three wavenumber regions (900-1200 cm-1, 1500-1700 cm-1 and 2680-3780 cm-1), where specific vibrational modes of the cellulosic structure fall, and over a T-range between 250 K and 340 K. A step-by-step evolution of the different arrangements of the polymer functional groups was proposed, with particular regard to how the cooperativity degree of inter- and intramolecular hydrogen bonds (HBs) changes upon heating. Information acquired can be useful, in principle, in order to develop a next-generation, T-sensitive novel material to be used for water remediation applications or for drug-delivery nano-vectors.

Synthesis and Application of Cellulose-Polyethyleneimine Composites and Nanocomposites: A Concise Review

Cellulose/polyethyleneimine composites have increasingly attracted the attention of scientific community, devoted to the design and development of new synthetic strategies and materials for different application fields. In this review, after introducing the main characteristics of the two polymeric components, we provide in the second section a critical overview on the main protocols for the synthesis of these composites, considering both the several cellulose sources and forms, and the different cross-linkers and cross-linking procedures developed for this purpose, outlining advantages and limits for the reported approaches. The last section analyses the principal results obtained in different application fields. A wide discussion is dedicated to the principal use of cellulose/polyethyleneimine composites as sorbents for water remediation from heavy metal ions and organic contaminants. Subsequently, we introduce the literature describing the use of these composites, functionalized appropriately, where necessary, as drug delivery systems, sensors, and heterogeneous catalysts for organic reactions. Finally, after a brief description of other random applications, we furnish a personal analysis of actual limits and potentialities for these systems.

Sclerotization-Inspired Aminoquinone Cross-Linking of Thermally Insulating and Moisture-Resilient Biobased Foams

Thermally insulating foams and aerogels based on cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are promising alternatives to fossil-based thermal insulation materials. We demonstrate a scalable route for moisture-resilient lightweight foams that relies on sclerotization-inspired Michael-type cross-linking of amine-modified CNFs by oxidized tannic acid. The solvent-exchanged, ice-templated, and quinone-tanned cross-linked anisotropic structures were mechanically stable and could withstand evaporative drying with minimal structural change. The low-density (7.7 kg m^-3) cross-linked anisotropic foams were moisture-resilient and displayed a compressive modulus of 90 kPa at 98% relative humidity (RH) and thermal conductivity values close to that of air between 20 and 80% RH at room temperature. Sclerotization-inspired cross-linking of biobased foams offers an energy-efficient and scalable route to produce sustainable and moisture-resilient lightweight materials.

From Magneto-Dielectric Biocomposite Films to Microstrip Antenna Devices

Magneto-dielectric composites are interesting advanced materials principally due to their potential applications in electronic fields, such as in microstrip antennas substrates. In this work, we developed superparamagnetic polymer-based films using the biopolymeric matrices chitosan (Ch), cellulose (BC) and collagen (Col). For this proposal, we synthesized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) functionalized with polyethyleneimine with a cheap method using sonochemistry. Further, the SPIONs were dispersed into polymer matrices and the composites were evaluated regarding morphology, thermal, dielectric and magnetic properties and their application as microstrip antennas substrates. Microscopically, all tested films presented a uniform dispersion profile, principally due to polyethyleneimine coating. Under an operating frequency (fo) of 4.45 GHz, Ch, BC and Col-based SPION substrates showed moderate dielectric constant (ε′) values in the range of 5.2–8.3, 6.7–8.4 and 5.9–9.1, respectively. Furthermore, the prepared films showed no hysteresis loop, thereby providing evidence of superparamagnetism. The microstrip antennas showed considerable bandwidths (3.37–6.34%) and a return loss lower than −10 dB. Besides, the fo were modulated according to the addition of SPIONs, varying in the range of 4.69–5.55, 4.63–5.18 and 4.93–5.44 GHz, for Ch, BC and Col-based substrates, respectively. Moreover, considering best modulation of ε′ and fo, the Ch-based SPION film showed the most suitable profile as a microstrip antenna substrate.

Efficient Non-Viral Gene Modification of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from Umbilical Cord Wharton's Jelly with Polyethylenimine

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) derived from human umbilical cord Wharton’s jelly (WJ) have a wide therapeutic potential in cell therapy and tissue engineering because of their multipotential capacity, which can be reinforced through gene therapy in order to modulate specific responses. However, reported methodologies to transfect WJ-MSC using cationic polymers are scarce. Here, WJ-MSC were transfected using 25 kDa branched- polyethylenimine (PEI) and a DNA plasmid encoding GFP. PEI/plasmid complexes were characterized to establish the best transfection efficiencies with lowest toxicity. Expression of MSC-related cell surface markers was evaluated. Likewise, immunomodulatory activity and multipotential capacity of transfected WJ-MSC were assessed by CD2/CD3/CD28-activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) cocultures and osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation assays, respectively. An association between cell number, PEI and DNA content, and transfection efficiency was observed. The highest transfection efficiency (15.3 ± 8.6%) at the lowest toxicity was achieved using 2 ng/μL DNA and 3.6 ng/μL PEI with 45,000 WJ-MSC in a 24-well plate format (200 μL). Under these conditions, there was no significant difference between the expression of MSC-identity markers, inhibitory effect on CD3+ T lymphocytes proliferation and osteogenic/adipogenic differentiation ability of transfected WJ-MSC, as compared with non-transfected cells. These results suggest that the functional properties of WJ-MSC were not altered after optimized transfection with PEI.

Suitability of a Cellulose-Based Nanomaterial for the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Freshwaters: A Case-Study Showing the Recovery of Cadmium Induced DNA Integrity Loss, Cell Proliferation Increase, Nuclear Morphology and Chromosomal Alterations on Dreissena polymorpha

The contamination of freshwaters by heavy metals represents a great problem, posing a threat for human and environmental health. Cadmium is classified as carcinogen to humans and its mechanism of carcinogenicity includes genotoxic events. In this study a recently developed eco-friendly cellulose-based nanosponge (CNS) was investigated as a candidate in freshwater nano-remediation process. For this purpose, CdCl₂ (0.05 mg L⁻¹) contaminated artificial freshwater (AFW) was treated with CNS (1.25 g L⁻¹ for 2 h), and cellular responses were analyzed before and after CNS treatment in Dreissena polymorpha hemocytes. A control group (AFW) and a negative control group (CNS in AFW) were also tested. DNA primary damage was evaluated by Comet assay while chromosomal damage and cell proliferation were assessed by Cytome assay. AFW exposed to CNS did not cause any genotoxic effect in zebra mussel hemocytes. Moreover, DNA damage and cell proliferation induced by Cd(II) turned down to control level after 2 days when CNS were used. A reduction of Cd(II)-induced micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities was also observed. CNS was thus found to be a safe and effective candidate in cadmium remediation process being efficient in metal sequestering, restoring cellular damage exerted by Cd(II) exposure, without altering cellular physiological activity.

Nanostructured Cellulose-Based Sorbent Materials for Water Decontamination from Organic Dyes

Nanostructured materials have been recently proposed in the field of environmental remediation. The use of nanomaterials as building blocks for the design of nano-porous micro-dimensional systems is particularly promising since it can overcome the (eco-)toxicological risks associated with the use of nano-sized technologies. Following this approach, we report here the application of a nanostructured cellulose-based material as sorbent for effective removal of organic dyes from water. It consists of a micro- and nano-porous sponge-like system derived by thermal cross-linking among (2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl (TEMPO)-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNF), branched polyethylenimine 25 kDa (bPEI), and citric acid (CA). The sorbent efficiency was tested for four different organic dyes commonly used for fabric printing (Naphthol Blue Black, Orange II Sodium Salt, Brilliant Blue R, Cibacron Brilliant Yellow), by conducting both thermodynamic and kinetic studies. The material performance was compared with that of an activated carbon, commonly used for this application, in order to highlight the potentialities and limits of this biomass-based new material. The possibility of regeneration and reuse of the sorbent was also investigated.

Silver Nanoparticles for Water Pollution Monitoring and Treatments: Ecosafety Challenge and Cellulose-Based Hybrids Solution

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely used as engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in many advanced nanotechnologies, due to their versatile, easy and cheap preparations combined with peculiar chemical-physical properties. Their increased production and integration in environmental applications including water treatment raise concerns for their impact on humans and the environment. An eco-design strategy that makes it possible to combine the best material performances with no risk for the natural ecosystems and living beings has been recently proposed. This review envisages potential hybrid solutions of AgNPs for water pollution monitoring and remediation to satisfy their successful, environmentally safe (ecosafe) application. Being extremely efficient in pollutants sensing and degradation, their ecosafe application can be achieved in combination with polymeric-based materials, especially with cellulose, by following an eco-design approach. In fact, (AgNPs)-cellulose hybrids have the double advantage of being easily produced using recycled material, with low costs and possible reuse, and of being ecosafe, if properly designed. An updated view of the use and prospects of these advanced hybrids AgNP-based materials is provided, which will surely speed their environmental application with consequent significant economic and environmental impact.

Effect-Based Approach to Assess Nanostructured Cellulose Sponge Removal Efficacy of Zinc Ions from Seawater to Prevent Ecological Risks

To encourage the applicability of nano-adsorbent materials for heavy metal ion removal from seawater and limit any potential side effects for marine organisms, an ecotoxicological evaluation based on a biological effect-based approach is presented. ZnCl2 (10 mg L-1) contaminated artificial seawater (ASW) was treated with newly developed eco-friendly cellulose-based nanosponges (CNS) (1.25 g L-1 for 2 h), and the cellular and tissue responses of marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis were measured before and after CNS treatment. A control group (ASW only) and a negative control group (CNS in ASW) were also tested. Methods: A significant recovery of Zn-induced damages in circulating immune and gill cells and mantle edges was observed in mussels exposed after CNS treatment. Genetic and chromosomal damages reversed to control levels in mussels' gill cells (DNA integrity level, nuclear abnormalities and apoptotic cells) and hemocytes (micronuclei), in which a recovery of lysosomal membrane stability (LMS) was also observed. Damage to syphons, loss of cilia by mantle edge epithelial cells and an increase in mucous cells in ZnCl2-exposed mussels were absent in specimens after CNS treatment, in which the mantle histology resembled that of the controls. No effects were observed in mussels exposed to CNS alone. As further proof of CNS' ability to remove Zn(II) from ASW, a significant reduction of >90% of Zn levels in ASW after CNS treatment was observed (from 6.006 to 0.510 mg L-1). Ecotoxicological evaluation confirmed the ability of CNS to remove Zn from ASW by showing a full recovery of Zn-induced toxicological responses to the levels of mussels exposed to ASW only (controls). An effect-based approach was thus proven to be useful in order to further support the environmentally safe (ecosafety) application of CNS for heavy metal removal from seawater.

Non-Viral in Vitro Gene Delivery: It is Now Time to Set the Bar!

Transfection by means of non-viral gene delivery vectors is the cornerstone of modern gene delivery. Despite the resources poured into the development of ever more effective transfectants, improvement is still slow and limited. Of note, the performance of any gene delivery vector in vitro is strictly dependent on several experimental conditions specific to each laboratory. The lack of standard tests has thus largely contributed to the flood of inconsistent data underpinning the reproducibility crisis. A way researchers seek to address this issue is by gauging the effectiveness of newly synthesized gene delivery vectors with respect to benchmarks of seemingly well-known behavior. However, the performance of such reference molecules is also affected by the testing conditions. This survey points to non-standardized transfection settings and limited information on variables deemed relevant in this context as the major cause of such misalignments. This review provides a catalog of conditions optimized for the gold standard and internal reference, 25 kDa polyethyleneimine, that can be profitably replicated across studies for the sake of comparison. Overall, we wish to pave the way for the implementation of standardized protocols in order to make the evaluation of the effectiveness of transfectants as unbiased as possible.

Degradation of pesticides using amine-functionalized cellulose nanocrystals

A series of amine-functionalized cellulose nanocrystal materials were successfully synthesized, characterized, and evaluated for the remediation of pesticide contaminants from organic and aqueous media. Their ability to degrade malathion in organic systems has been examined, resulting in up to 100% degradation of the compound into detectable lower molecular weight by-products. A poly(ethylenimine) cellulose nanocrystal (CNC-PEI) material was also capable of degrading aqueous solutions of malathion, deltamethrin, and permethrin with 100%, 95%, and 78% degradation, respectively. Thus, these materials can potentially serve as a new and viable remediation technique based on their ability to effectively degrade various pesticides. The reusability of the CNC-PEI was also explored. The CNC-PEI material maintained its ability to degrade malathion throughout two wash and re-use cycles.

A series of amine-functionalized cellulose nanocrystal materials were successfully synthesized, characterized, and evaluated for the remediation of pesticide contaminants from organic and aqueous media.

Naked-Eye Heterogeneous Sensing of Fluoride Ions by Co-Polymeric Nanosponge Systems Comprising Aromatic-Imide-Functionalized Nanocellulose and Branched Polyethyleneimine

Heterogeneous colorimetric sensors for fluoride ions were obtained by cross-linking TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNF) with chemically modified branched polyethyleneimine 25 kDa (bPEI). Functionalization of bPEI primary amino groups with aromatic anhydrides led to the formation of the corresponding mono- and bis-imides on the grafted polymers (f-bPEI). A microwave-assisted procedure allowed the optimization of the synthetic protocol by reducing reaction time from 17 h to 30 minutes. Hydrogels obtained by mixing different ratios of TOCNF, bPEI and f-bPEI were lyophilized and thermally treated at about 100 °C to promote the formation of amide bonds between the amino groups of poly-cationic polymers and the carboxylic groups of cellulose nanofibers. This approach generated a series of cellulose nanosponges S1-S3 which were characterized by FT-IR and by solid state ¹³ C CPMAS NMR. These sponge materials can act as colorimetric sensors for the selective naked-eye recognition of fluoride ions over chloride, phosphate and acetate ions at concentrations of up to 0.05 M in DMSO. Moreover, when the sponges were functionalized with perylene tetracarboxylic diimide, successful naked-eye detection was achieved with only 0.02 % w/w of chromophore units per gram of material.

Cellulose Nanofiber-Graphene Oxide Biohybrids: Disclosing the Self-Assembly and Copper-Ion Adsorption Using Advanced Microscopy and ReaxFF Simulations

The self-assembly of nanocellulose and graphene oxide into highly porous biohybrid materials has inspired the design and synthesis of multifunctional membranes for removing water pollutants. The mechanisms of self-assembly, metal ion capture, and cluster formation on the biohybrids at the nano- and molecular scales are quite complex. Their elucidation requires evidence from the synergistic combination of experimental data and computational models. The AFM-based microscopy studies of (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxylradical)-mediated oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNFs), graphene oxide (GO), and their biohybrid membranes provide strong, direct evidence of self-assembly; small GO nanoparticles first attach and accumulate along a single TOCNF fiber, while the long, flexible TOCNF filaments wrap around the flat, wide GO planes, thus forming an amorphous and porous biohybrid network. The layered structure of the TOCNFs and GO membrane, derived from the self-assembly and its surface properties before and after the adsorption of Cu(II), is investigated by advanced microscopy techniques and is further clarified by the ReaxFF molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The dynamics of the Cu(II)-ion capture by the TOCNF and GO membranes in solution and the ion cluster formation during drying are confirmed by the MD simulations. The results of this multidisciplinary investigation move the research one step forward by disclosing specific aspects of the self-assembly behavior of biospecies and suggesting effective design strategies to control the pore size and robust materials for industrial applications.

Environmentally Sustainable and Ecosafe Polysaccharide-Based Materials for Water Nano-Treatment: An Eco-Design Study

Nanoremediation, which is the use of nanoparticles and nanomaterials for environmental remediation, is widely explored and proposed for preservation of ecosystems that suffer from the increase in human population, pollution, and urbanization. We herein report a critical analysis of nanotechnologies for water remediation by assessing their sustainability in terms of efficient removal of pollutants, appropriate methods for monitoring their effectiveness, and protocols for the evaluation of any potential environmental risks. Our purpose is to furnish fruitful guidelines for sustainable water management, able to promote nanoremediation also at European level. In this context, we describe new nanostructured polysaccharide-based materials obtained from renewable resources as alternative efficient and ecosafe solutions for water nano-treatment. We also provide eco-design indications to improve the sustainability of the production of these materials, based on life-cycle assessment methodology.

Superoleophilic and Flexible Thermoplastic Polymer Nanofiber Aerogels for Removal of Oils and Organic Solvents

Chemical cross-linked poly(vinyl alcohol-co-ethylene) (EVOH) nanofiber aerogels (NFAs) were fabricated employing an economical and facile freeze-drying process. The manufactured chemical cross-linking nanofiber aerogel was successfully confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, and X-ray diffraction. The resulting aerogels showed high porosity (>99%), superior elasticity, elastic durability, high hydrophobicity, and superoleophilicity without any other hydrophobic modification. The cross-linked EVOH NFAs exhibited excellent absorption capacity (ranging from 45 to 102 times their own weight) when exposed to various oils and organic solvents, which was observed to be higher than that for most sorbents reported in the literature. Consequently, it is envisaged that the cross-linked EVOH NFA would play an important role in many fields of pollution removal.

Self-Assembled TEMPO Cellulose Nanofibers: Graphene Oxide-Based Biohybrids for Water Purification

Nanocellulose, graphene oxide (GO), and their combinations there off have attracted great attention for the application of water purification recently because of their unique adsorption capacity, mechanical characteristics, coordination with transition metal ions, surface charge density, and so on. In the current study, (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxylradical) (TEMPO)-mediated oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNF) and GO sheets or graphene oxide nanocolloid (nanoGO) biohybrids were prepared by vacuum filtration method to obtain self-assembled adsorbents and membranes for water purification. The porous biohybrid structure, studied using advanced microscopy techniques, revealed a unique networking and self-assembling of TOCNF, GO, and nanoGO, driven by the morphology of the GO phase and stabilized by the intermolecular H-bonding between carboxyl groups and hydroxyl groups. The biohybrids exhibited a promising adsorption capacity toward Cu(II) due to TOCNF and formed a unique "arrested state" in water because of ionic cross-linking between adsorbed Cu(II) and the negatively charged TOCNF and GO phase. The mechanical performance of the freestanding biohybrid membranes investigated using PeakForce Quantative NanoMechanics characterization confirmed the enhanced modulus of the hybrid membrane compared to that of the TOCNF membrane. Besides, the TOCNF+nanoGO membrane shows unique hydrolytic stability and recyclability even under several cycles of adsorption and desorption and strong sonication. This study shows that TOCNF and nanoGO hybrids can generate new water-cleaning membranes with synergistic properties because of their high adsorption capacity, flexibility, hydrolytic stability, and mechanical robustness.