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Dymond S, Cameron G, Zuj DV, Quigley M. Far from the threatening crowd: Generalisation of conditioned threat expectancy and fear in COVID-19 lockdown. Learn Behav 2024:10.3758/s13420-024-00625-4. [PMID: 38286957 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-024-00625-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Fear and anxiety are rarely confined to specific stimuli or situations. In fear generalisation, there is a spread of fear responses elicited by physically dissimilar generalisation stimuli (GS) along a continuum between danger and safety. The current study investigated fear generalisation with a novel online task using COVID-19-relevant stimuli (i.e., busy or quiet shopping street/mall scenes) during pandemic lockdown restrictions in the United Kingdom. Participants (N = 50) first completed clinically relevant trait measures before commencing a habituation phase, where two conditioned stimuli (CSs; i.e., a busy or quiet high street/mall scene) were presented. Participants then underwent fear conditioning where one conditioned stimulus (CS+) was followed by an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US; a loud female scream accompanied by a facial photograph of a female displaying a fearful emotion) and another (CS-) was not. In a test phase, six generalisation stimuli were presented where the US was withheld, and participants provided threat expectancy and fear ratings for all stimuli. Following successful conditioning, fear generalization was observed for both threat expectancy and fear ratings. Trait worry partially predicted generalised threat expectancy and COVID-19 fear strongly predicted generalised fear. In conclusion, a generalisation gradient was evident using an online remote generalisation task with images of busy/quiet streets during the pandemic. Worry and fear of COVID-19 predicted fear generalisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Dymond
- School of Psychology, Swansea University, Singleton Campus, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK.
- Department of Psychology, Reykjavík University, Menntavegur 1, Nauthólsvík, 101, Reykjavík, Iceland.
| | - Gemma Cameron
- School of Psychology, Swansea University, Singleton Campus, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Daniel V Zuj
- School of Psychology, Swansea University, Singleton Campus, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1342, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Martyn Quigley
- School of Psychology, Swansea University, Singleton Campus, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
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2
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Ney LJ, O'Donohue M, Wang Y, Richardson M, Vasarhelyi A, Lipp OV. The next frontier: Moving human fear conditioning research online. Biol Psychol 2023; 184:108715. [PMID: 37852526 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Fear conditioning is a significant area of research that has featured prominently among the topics published in Biological Psychology over the last 50 years. This work has greatly contributed to our understanding of human anxiety and stressor-related disorders. While mainly conducted in the laboratory, recently, there have been initial attempts to conduct fear conditioning experiments online, with around 10 studies published on the subject, primarily in the last two years. These studies have demonstrated the potential of online fear conditioning research, although challenges to ensure that this research meets the same methodological standards as in-person experimentation remain, despite recent progress. We expect that in the coming years new outcome measures will become available online including the measurement of eye-tracking, pupillometry and probe reaction time and that compliance monitoring will be improved. This exciting new approach opens new possibilities for large-scale data collection among hard-to-reach populations and has the potential to transform the future of fear conditioning research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke J Ney
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Australia, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Matthew O'Donohue
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Australia, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Yi Wang
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Australia, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Mikaela Richardson
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Australia, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Adam Vasarhelyi
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Australia, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ottmar V Lipp
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Australia, Brisbane, Australia.
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3
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Ney LJ, FitzSimons-Reilly A, Lipp OV. Reaction time as an outcome measure during online fear conditioning: Effects of number of trials, age, and levels of processing. Behav Res Ther 2023; 169:104406. [PMID: 37738844 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2023.104406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that fear conditioning experiments can be successfully conducted online. However, there is limited evidence that measures other than subjective ratings of threat expectancy can be collected, which means that online research may not be able to adequately replace laboratory experiments. In the current study, we conducted an online fear conditioning experiment consisting of habituation, acquisition, extinction and 48 h delayed extinction recall using ratings of threat expectancy and conditional stimulus pleasantness, and probe reaction time as outcome measures. The conditional stimuli were categories of words and a levels of processing manipulation explored whether words that were processed at a deeper level during extinction evoked smaller differential threat responses during extinction recall. Although the levels of processing manipulation did not produce a significant outcome, we found that extinction recall was successfully operationalised in our study. Reaction time indicated differential responding during both acquisition and extinction recall, and age of participants was correlated in one of two experiments with differential threat expectancy and reaction time, such that older participants showed better safety learning. The outcomes of this experiment provide multiple novel tools for researchers to explore fear conditioning, especially in an online environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke J Ney
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.
| | | | - Ottmar V Lipp
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
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4
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McGregor T, Purves KL, Barry T, Constantinou E, Craske MG, Breen G, Young KS, Eley TC. Introducing the Fear Learning and Anxiety Response (FLARe) app and web portal for the remote delivery of fear conditioning experiments. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:3164-3178. [PMID: 36070129 PMCID: PMC10556157 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-01952-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Experimental paradigms measuring key psychological constructs can enhance our understanding of mechanisms underlying human psychological well-being and mental health. Delivering such paradigms remotely affords opportunities to reach larger, more representative samples than is typically possible with in-person research. The efficiency gained from remote delivery makes it easier to test replication of previously established effects in well-powered samples. There are several challenges to the successful development and delivery of remote experimental paradigms, including use of an appropriate delivery platform, identifying feasible outcome measures, and metrics of participant compliance. In this paper, we present FLARe (Fear Learning and Anxiety Response), open-source software in the form of a smartphone app and web portal for the creation and delivery of remote fear conditioning experiments. We describe the benefits and challenges associated with the creation of a remote delivery platform for fear conditioning, before presenting in detail the resultant software suite, and one instance of deploying this using the FLARe Research infrastructure. We provide examples of the application of FLARe to several research questions which illustrate the benefits of the remote approach to experiment delivery. The FLARe smartphone app and web portal are available for use by other researchers and have been designed to be user-friendly and intuitive. We hope that FLARe will be a useful tool for those interested in conducting well-powered fear conditioning studies to inform our understanding of the development and treatment of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. McGregor
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - K. L. Purves
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - T. Barry
- Experimental Psychopathology Lab, Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - E. Constantinou
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - M. G. Craske
- Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - G. Breen
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - K. S. Young
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - T. C. Eley
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, London, UK
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Berg F, Margraf J, Wannemüller A. Calibrating your own fears: Feasibility of a remote fear conditioning paradigm with semi-subjective stimulus calibration and differences in fear learning. Learn Behav 2023; 51:246-261. [PMID: 36239878 PMCID: PMC9568901 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-022-00545-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Fear conditioning studies have occurred mostly in the laboratory, but recently researchers have started to adapt fear conditioning procedures for remote application. Standardization of aversive stimulus material not causing unnecessarily strong discomfort remains an issue especially relevant to research without experimental supervision. The present study introduces a novel semi-subjective method to calibrate aversive sounds in a remotely conducted fear conditioning paradigm. To demonstrate feasibility and proof of concept, 165 participants completed the paradigm, calibrating the loudness of an aversive sound without the guidance of an experimental instructor. This study also aimed to replicate existing findings of participant groups that differed in their early CS-UCS contingency awareness. Participants were classified as Accurate (UCS more likely after the CS+ than CS-), Poor (UCS more likely after the CS- than CS+, or UCS unlikely after either CS), and Threat Biased (UCS equally likely after the CS+ and CS-). Results indicated both the feasibility and efficacy of the paradigm, with participants showing typical patterns of fear learning. Threat Biased participants showed significantly higher uncertainty towards safety signals. There were no differences between the groups in terms of personality traits, thus questioning whether these attributes mediate differences in fear learning and the emergence of anxiety disorders. Using semi-subjective sound calibration appears to be functional, and future studies may consider implementing the new method when remotely administering fear conditioning paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Berg
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Massenbergstraße 9, 44787, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Jürgen Margraf
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Massenbergstraße 9, 44787, Bochum, Germany
| | - André Wannemüller
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Massenbergstraße 9, 44787, Bochum, Germany
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Ney LJ, Nichols DS, Lipp OV. Fear conditioning depends on the nature of the unconditional stimulus and may be related to hair levels of endocannabinoids. Psychophysiology 2023; 60:e14297. [PMID: 36959707 PMCID: PMC10909444 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
The replicability of fear conditioning research has come under recent scrutiny, with increasing acknowledgment that the use of differing materials and methods may lead to incongruent results. Direct comparisons between the main two unconditional stimuli used in fear conditioning - an electric shock or a loud scream-are scarce, and yet these stimuli are usually used interchangeably. In the present study, we tested whether a scream, a shock, or an unpredictable combination of the two affected fear acquisition, extinction, and return of fear amongst healthy participants (N = 109, 81 female). We also collected hair samples and tested the relationship between fear conditioning and hair endocannabinoid levels. Our findings suggest that, although subjective ratings of pleasantness, arousal, and anxiety were similar regardless of the unconditional stimuli used, skin conductance responses were significantly lower for stimuli paired with the scream compared to a shock alone. Further, reducing the predictability of the unconditional stimulus reduced habituation of skin conductance responses during acquisition and reacquisition, but did not produce stronger conditioning compared to shock alone. Exploratory analyses suggested that hair endocannabinoids were associated with overall physiological arousal during fear conditioning, as well as higher return of fear to the threat cue, but not to the safety cue. These findings have multiple implications for the design and replicability of fear conditioning research and provide the first evidence for an association between hair levels of endocannabinoids and human fear conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke J. Ney
- School of Psychology and CounsellingQueensland University of TechnologyBrisbaneQueenslandAustralia
| | - David S. Nichols
- Central Science LaboratoryUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | - Ottmar V. Lipp
- School of Psychology and CounsellingQueensland University of TechnologyBrisbaneQueenslandAustralia
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7
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Lipp A, Macit B, Woud ML, Dere E, Zlomuzica A. Conscious knowledge of CS-UCS contingency information affects extinction retrieval of conditioned disgust responses: Findings from an online de novo disgust conditioning task. Int J Clin Health Psychol 2023; 23:100368. [PMID: 36762035 PMCID: PMC9883280 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective The present study aimed to establish and develop an online de novo conditioning paradigm for the measurement of conditioned disgust responses. We further explored the effects of explicit instructions about the CS-UCS contingency on extinction learning and retrieval of conditioned disgust responses. Method The study included a sample of 115 healthy participants. Geometric figures served as conditioned stimuli (CS) and disgust-evoking pictures as unconditioned stimuli (UCS). During disgust conditioning, the CS+ was paired with the UCS (66% reinforcement) and the CS- remained unpaired; during extinction and retrieval, no UCS was presented. Half of the participants (n = 54) received instructions prior to the disgust extinction stating that the UCS will not be presented anymore. 1-2 days or 7-8 days later participants performed a retrieval test. CS-UCS contingency, disgust and valence ratings were used as dependent measures. Results Successful acquisition of conditioned disgust response was observed on the level of CS-UCS contingency, disgust and valence ratings. While some decline in valence and disgust ratings during the extinction stage was observed, contingency instructions did not significantly affect extinction performance. Retrieval one week later revealed that contingency instructions increased the discrimination of the CSs. Conclusions Extinction of conditioned disgust responses is not affected by explicit knowledge of the CS-UCS contingencies. However, contingency instructions prior to extinction seem to have a detrimental effect on long-term extinction retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Lipp
- Department of Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
| | - Beray Macit
- Department of Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
| | - Marcella L. Woud
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany
| | - Ekrem Dere
- Department of Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Armin Zlomuzica
- Department of Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience, Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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8
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Gromer D, Hildebrandt LK, Stegmann Y. The Role of Expectancy Violation in Extinction Learning: A Two-Day Online Fear Conditioning Study. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EUROPE 2023; 5:e9627. [PMID: 37732150 PMCID: PMC10508258 DOI: 10.32872/cpe.9627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Exposure therapy is at the core of the treatment of pathological anxiety. While the inhibitory learning model proposes a framework for the mechanisms underlying exposure therapy, in particular expectancy violation, causal evidence for its assumptions remains elusive. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to provide evidence for the influence of expectancy violation on extinction retention by manipulating the magnitude of expectancy violation during extinction learning. Method In total, 101 individuals completed a web-based fear conditioning protocol, consisting of a fear acquisition and extinction phase, as well as a spontaneous recovery and fear reinstatement test 24h later. To experimentally manipulate expectancy violation, participants were presented only with states of the conditioned stimulus that either weakly or strongly predicted the aversive outcome. Consequently, the absence of any aversive outcomes in the extinction phase resulted in low or high expectancy violation, respectively. Results We found successful fear acquisition and manipulation of expectancy violation, which was associated with reduced threat ratings for the high compared to the low expectancy violation group directly after extinction learning. On Day 2, inhibitory CS-noUS associations could be retrieved for expectancy ratings, whereas there were no substantial group differences for threat ratings. Conclusion These findings indicate that the magnitude of expectancy violation is related to the retrieval of conscious threat expectancies, but it is unclear how these changes translate to affective components (i.e., threat ratings) of the fear response and to symptoms of pathological anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gromer
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Yannik Stegmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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9
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De Kleine RA, Hutschemaekers MHM, Hendriks GJ, Kampman M, Papalini S, Van Minnen A, Vervliet B. Impaired action-safety learning and excessive relief during avoidance in patients with anxiety disorders. J Anxiety Disord 2023; 96:102698. [PMID: 37004425 DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2023.102698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
Anxiety-related disorders are characterized by high levels of avoidance, but experimental research into avoidance learning in patients is scarce. To fill this gap, we compared healthy controls (HC, n = 47) with patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD, n = 33), panic disorder with agoraphobia (PDA, n = 40), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD, n = 66) in a computer-based avoidance learning task, in order to examine (1) differences in rates of avoidance responses, (2) differences in action-safety learning during avoidance, and (3) differences in subjective relief following successful avoidance. The task comprised aversive negative pictures (unconditional stimulus, US) that followed pictures of two colored lamps (conditional stimuli, CS+), but not a third colored lamp (safety stimulus, CS-), and could be avoided by pressing a button during one CS+ (CS+ avoidable) but not the other (CS+ unavoidable). Participants rated their US-expectancy and level of relief on a trial-by-trial basis. Compared to the HC group, patient groups displayed higher levels of avoidance to the safety stimulus, and higher levels of US-expectancy and relief following the safety and avoidable danger stimulus. We propose that patients with anxiety disorders have low confidence in the safety consequences of avoidance actions, which induces increased relief during US omissions that reinforce the avoidance action.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A De Kleine
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Leiden University, The Netherlands; Pro Persona Mental Health Care, The Netherlands.
| | - M H M Hutschemaekers
- Pro Persona Mental Health Care, The Netherlands; Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, The Netherlands
| | - G J Hendriks
- Pro Persona Mental Health Care, The Netherlands; Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - M Kampman
- Pro Persona Mental Health Care, The Netherlands; Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, The Netherlands
| | - S Papalini
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - A Van Minnen
- Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, The Netherlands; PSYTREC, The Netherlands
| | - B Vervliet
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Belgium
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10
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Beckers T, Hermans D, Lange I, Luyten L, Scheveneels S, Vervliet B. Understanding clinical fear and anxiety through the lens of human fear conditioning. NATURE REVIEWS PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 2:233-245. [PMID: 36811021 PMCID: PMC9933844 DOI: 10.1038/s44159-023-00156-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Fear is an adaptive emotion that mobilizes defensive resources upon confrontation with danger. However, fear becomes maladaptive and can give rise to the development of clinical anxiety when it exceeds the degree of threat, generalizes broadly across stimuli and contexts, persists after the danger is gone or promotes excessive avoidance behaviour. Pavlovian fear conditioning has been the prime research instrument that has led to substantial progress in understanding the multi-faceted psychological and neurobiological mechanisms of fear in past decades. In this Perspective, we suggest that fruitful use of Pavlovian fear conditioning as a laboratory model of clinical anxiety requires moving beyond the study of fear acquisition to associated fear conditioning phenomena: fear extinction, generalization of conditioned fear and fearful avoidance. Understanding individual differences in each of these phenomena, not only in isolation but also in how they interact, will further strengthen the external validity of the fear conditioning model as a tool with which to study maladaptive fear as it manifests in clinical anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Beckers
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dirk Hermans
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Iris Lange
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Laura Luyten
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sara Scheveneels
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bram Vervliet
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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11
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Peng Y, Knotts JD, Young KS, Bookheimer SY, Nusslock R, Zinbarg RE, Kelley NJ, Echiverri-Cohen AM, Craske MG. Threat Neurocircuitry Predicts the Development of Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in a Longitudinal Study. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2023; 8:102-110. [PMID: 35031524 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Owing to high heterogeneity and comorbidity, the shared and unique neural mechanisms underlying the development of anxiety and major depressive disorders remain unclear. Using a dimensional model describing shared versus unique symptoms associated with anxiety and depression, this study investigated how longitudinal changes in symptom dimensions relate to threat neurocircuitry. METHODS Participants were 18- to 19-year-olds (N = 279, 186 females) who completed self-report measures of anxiety and depression at baseline and at 10, 20, and 30 months. Linear slopes of symptom dimensions of general distress, fear, and anhedonia-apprehension were estimated through a trilevel factorial model. In addition, functional magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained while participants performed Pavlovian fear conditioning tasks at baseline and 30 months, including three phases of fear acquisition, extinction, and extinction recall. Neural responses in regions of interest related to threat neural circuitry (e.g., amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex) were extracted. RESULTS Linear mixed models used to estimate relationships between changes of symptom dimensions and neural responses revealed two major findings: 1) greater neural responses to threatening stimuli during fear acquisition at baseline were associated with a greater increase in fear symptoms during the 30-month prospective period; and 2) elevated neural responses to the extinguished stimulus during extinction recall at 30 months were negatively associated with changes in general distress, suggesting that greater increases in general distress are associated with larger deficits in extinction memory. CONCLUSIONS These findings improve our understanding of pathophysiological pathways underlying the development of anxiety and depression, while separating symptom dimensions that are shared versus unique between the two disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Peng
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China; Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Peking University, Beijing, China; Beijing Institute for General Artificial Intelligence, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Jeffrey D Knotts
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire
| | - Katherine S Young
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Social, Genetic and Development Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; NIHR Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Y Bookheimer
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Robin Nusslock
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
| | - Richard E Zinbarg
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois; Family Institute at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
| | - Nicholas J Kelley
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois; Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Michelle G Craske
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
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12
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Björkstrand J, Pine DS, Frick A. Evaluating an internet-delivered fear conditioning and extinction protocol using response times and affective ratings. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4014. [PMID: 35256733 PMCID: PMC8901755 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07999-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian fear conditioning is widely used to study mechanisms of fear learning, but high-throughput studies are hampered by the labor-intensive nature of examining participants in the lab. To circumvent this bottle-neck, fear conditioning tasks have been developed for remote delivery. Previous studies have examined remotely delivered fear conditioning protocols using expectancy and affective ratings. Here we replicate and extend these findings using an internet-delivered version of the Screaming Lady paradigm, evaluating the effects on negative affective ratings and response time to an auditory probe during stimulus presentation. In a sample of 80 adults, we observed clear evidence of both fear acquisition and extinction using affective ratings. Response times were faster when probed early, but not later, during presentation of stimuli paired with an aversive scream. The response time findings are at odds with previous lab-based studies showing slower as opposed to faster responses to threat-predicting cues. The findings underscore the feasibility of employing remotely delivered fear conditioning paradigms with affective ratings as outcome. Findings further highlight the need for research examining optimal parameters for concurrent response time measures or alternate non-verbal indicators of conditioned responses in Pavlovian conditioning protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel S Pine
- National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Andreas Frick
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Stegmann Y, Andreatta M, Pauli P, Wieser MJ. Associative learning shapes visual discrimination in a web-based classical conditioning task. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15762. [PMID: 34344923 PMCID: PMC8333260 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95200-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Threat detection plays a vital role in adapting behavior to changing environments. A fundamental function to improve threat detection is learning to differentiate between stimuli predicting danger and safety. Accordingly, aversive learning should lead to enhanced sensory discrimination of danger and safety cues. However, studies investigating the psychophysics of visual and auditory perception after aversive learning show divergent findings, and both enhanced and impaired discrimination after aversive learning have been reported. Therefore, the aim of this web-based study is to examine the impact of aversive learning on a continuous measure of visual discrimination. To this end, 205 participants underwent a differential fear conditioning paradigm before and after completing a visual discrimination task using differently oriented grating stimuli. Participants saw either unpleasant or neutral pictures as unconditioned stimuli (US). Results demonstrated sharpened visual discrimination for the US-associated stimulus (CS+), but not for the unpaired conditioned stimuli (CS-). Importantly, this finding was irrespective of the US's valence. These findings suggest that associative learning results in increased stimulus salience, which facilitates perceptual discrimination in order to prioritize attentional deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannik Stegmann
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, 97070, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, 97070, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, 97070, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Mental Health, Medical Faculty, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias J Wieser
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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