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Sparkes E, Timmerman A, Markham JW, Boyd R, Gordon R, Walker KA, Kevin RC, Hibbs DE, Banister SD, Cairns EA, Stove C, Ametovski A. Synthesis and Functional Evaluation of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists Related to ADB-HEXINACA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2024; 15:1787-1812. [PMID: 38597712 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
ADB-HEXINACA has been recently reported as a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA), one of the largest classes of new psychoactive substances (NPSs). This compound marks the entry of the n-hexyl tail group into the SCRA landscape, which has continued in the market with recent, newly detected SCRAs. As such, a proactive characterization campaign was undertaken, including the synthesis, characterization, and pharmacological evaluation of ADB-HEXINACA and a library of 41 closely related analogues. Two in vitro functional assays were employed to assess activity at CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, measuring Gβγ-coupled agonism through a fluorescence-based membrane potential assay (MPA) and β-arrestin 2 (βarr2) recruitment via a live cell-based nanoluciferase complementation reporter assay. ADB-HEXINACA was a potent and efficacious CB1 agonist (CB1 MPA pEC50 = 7.87 ± 0.12 M; Emax = 124 ± 5%; βarr2 pEC50 = 8.27 ± 0.14 M; Emax = 793 ± 42.5), as were most compounds assessed. Isolation of the heterocyclic core and alkyl tails allowed for the comprehensive characterization of structure-activity relationships in this compound class, which were rationalized in silico via induced fit docking experiments. Overall, most compounds assessed are possibly emerging NPSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Sparkes
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Axelle Timmerman
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jack W Markham
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Rochelle Boyd
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Rebecca Gordon
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Katelyn A Walker
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Richard C Kevin
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia
- School of Clinical Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - David E Hibbs
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Samuel D Banister
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A Cairns
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Adam Ametovski
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
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2
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Dou Q, Liu W, Xiang P, Zhao J. Quantitative Analysis of Three Synthetic Cannabinoids MDMB-4en-PINACA, ADB-BUTINACA, and ADB-4en-PINACA by Thermal-Assisted Carbon Fiber Ionization Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2023; 34:2316-2322. [PMID: 37641897 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Recently, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) have emerged as new psychoactive substances (NPS) and have been frequently added to e-liquids, leading to their abuse. In order to detect SCs in e-liquids quickly and accurately, a thermal-assisted carbon fiber ionization mass spectrometry technique has been developed. The introduction of a heat source helps to reduce the matrix effects. The results indicate that the ratio of the slope of the matrix curve (e-liquids matrix) and the standard curve (methanol solution) for SCs analysis is close to 1, indicating a minimized matrix effect of this method. Furthermore, this method exhibits good quantitative ability when applied to real samples. It does not require sample pretreatment and is sensitive enough to directly quantify SCs in e-liquids. Our method is characterized by the ability to achieve rapid and direct quantitative analysis with minimized matrix effects. It provides a rapid and simple method for analyzing SCs in e-liquids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quanlu Dou
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai 200063, China
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Wanhui Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Junbo Zhao
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai 200063, China
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3
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Gioé-Gallo C, Ortigueira S, Brea J, Raïch I, Azuaje J, Paleo MR, Majellaro M, Loza MI, Salas CO, García-Mera X, Navarro G, Sotelo E. Pharmacological insights emerging from the characterization of a large collection of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists designer drugs. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 164:114934. [PMID: 37236027 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) constitute the largest and most defiant group of abuse designer drugs. These new psychoactive substances (NPS), developed as unregulated alternatives to cannabis, have potent cannabimimetic effects and their use is usually associated with episodes of psychosis, seizures, dependence, organ toxicity and death. Due to their ever-changing structure, very limited or nil structural, pharmacological, and toxicological information is available to the scientific community and the law enforcement offices. Here we report the synthesis and pharmacological evaluation (binding and functional) of the largest and most diverse collection of enantiopure SCRAs published to date. Our results revealed novel SCRAs that could be (or may currently be) used as illegal psychoactive substances. We also report, for the first time, the cannabimimetic data of 32 novel SCRAs containing an (R) configuration at the stereogenic center. The systematic pharmacological profiling of the library enabled the identification of emerging Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) and Structure-Selectivity Relationship (SSR) trends, the detection of ligands exhibiting incipient cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R) subtype selectivity and highlights the significant neurotoxicity of representative SCRAs on mouse primary neuronal cells. Several of the new emerging SCRAs are currently expected to have a rather limited potential for harm, as the evaluation of their pharmacological profiles revealed lower potencies and/or efficacies. Conceived as a resource to foster collaborative investigation of the physiological effects of SCRAs, the library obtained can contribute to addressing the challenge posed by recreational designer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Gioé-Gallo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Sandra Ortigueira
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - José Brea
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CiMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
| | - Iu Raïch
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain; Institute of Neurosciences (NeuroUB), Campus Mundet, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain
| | - Jhonny Azuaje
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - M Rita Paleo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Maria Majellaro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - María Isabel Loza
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Medicina Molecular y Enfermedades Crónicas (CiMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Cristian O Salas
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago 7820436, Chile
| | - Xerardo García-Mera
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona 08028, Spain; Institute of Neurosciences (NeuroUB), Campus Mundet, University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain.
| | - Eddy Sotelo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.
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4
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Giorgetti A, Brunetti P, Haschimi B, Busardò FP, Pelotti S, Auwärter V. Human phase-I metabolism and prevalence of two synthetic cannabinoids bearing an ethyl ester moiety: 5F-EDMB-PICA and EDMB-PINACA. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:299-313. [PMID: 36366743 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Around 2017, with the appearance of 5F-EDMB-PINACA, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) carrying an ethyl ester moiety at the linked group started spreading on the market of new psychoactive substances (NPS). In 2020 and 2021, the indole analog of 5F-EDMB-PINACA (5F-EDMB-PICA) and the non-fluorinated analog of this compound (EDMB-PINACA) were analytically characterized. Here, we present suitable urinary markers to prove the consumption of these two ethyl analogs. Ten authentic urine samples for each compound were analyzed by liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-qToF-MS). Anticipated phase-I metabolites detected in urine samples were confirmed in vitro by applying a pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) assay. Prevalence data were obtained from urines collected for abstinence control and submitted to a screening method for SC metabolites. Ten phase-I metabolites of 5F-EDMB-PICA and 18 of EDMB-PINACA were detected by LC-qToF-MS analysis of authentic urine specimens. The main in-vivo metabolites were built by ester hydrolysis, often coupled to further metabolic processes. Investigation of phase-I biotransformation led to the identification of ester hydrolysis, monohydroxylation, and defluorination products as the most suitable urinary biomarkers for 5F-EDMB-PICA. Metabolites formed by ester hydrolysis coupled to ketone formation and by monohydroxylation are suggested for the detection of EDMB-PINACA. From October 1, 2020 to February 1, 2022, among positive urine samples, 5.4% and 10.1% tested positive 5F-EDMB-PICA and EDMB-PINACA, respectively. Due to common metabolites shared among structurally related SCs, the unequivocal detection of their consumption remains challenging for forensic laboratories and requires sensitive methods to monitor multiple metabolites, ideally including highly specific species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Giorgetti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna.,Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Pietro Brunetti
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Susi Pelotti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Unit of Legal Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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5
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Wang KD, Yuan XL, Liu C, Cao FQ, Zhang YR, Liu WB, He SY. Identification of three novel new psychoactive substances 4F-AB-BUTINACA, AB-PHETINACA, and 2F-NENDCK. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:115-122. [PMID: 35986510 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The identification of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is an active and cutting-edge topic in forensic science. With the emergence of a large number of NPS, their timely identification to prevent spread can pose a challenge to clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories. Three emerging NPS had been identified in recently seized materials, including two synthetic cannabinoids [N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(4-fluorobutyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (4F-AB-BUTINACA) and N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-phenethyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-PHETINACA)] and a ketamine-like substance [2-(2-fluorophenyl)-2-(ethylamino) cyclohexan-1-one(2F-NENDCK)]. The three compounds were first identified by Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). These data may assist forensic analysts in analyzing the same substances or their homologous compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kua-Dou Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Institute of Forensic Science, Shanghai Public Security Bureau, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Liang Yuan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Liu
- Shanghai Punan Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang-Qi Cao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu-Rong Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Institute of Forensic Science, Shanghai Public Security Bureau, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen-Bin Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Si-Yang He
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Institute of Forensic Science, Shanghai Public Security Bureau, Shanghai, China
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6
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Markham J, Sparkes E, Boyd R, Chen S, Manning JJ, Finlay D, Lai F, McGregor E, Maloney CJ, Gerona RR, Connor M, McGregor IS, Hibbs DE, Glass M, Kevin RC, Banister SD. Defining Steric Requirements at CB 1 and CB 2 Cannabinoid Receptors Using Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists 5F-AB-PINACA, 5F-ADB-PINACA, PX-1, PX-2, NNL-1, and Their Analogues. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:1281-1295. [PMID: 35404067 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are a diverse class of new psychoactive substances (NPS). They commonly comprise N-alkylated indole, indazole, or 7-azaindole scaffolds with amide-linked pendant amino acid groups. To explore the contribution of the amino acid side chain to the cannabinoid pharmacology of SCRA NPS, a systematic library of side chain-modified SCRAs was prepared based on the recent detections of amino acid derivatives 17 (5F-AB-PINACA), 18 (5F-ADB-PINACA), 15 (PX-1), 19 (PX-2), and 20 (NNL-1). In vitro binding affinities and functional activities at cannabinoid type 1 and 2 receptors (CB1 and CB2, respectively) were determined for all the library members using radioligand competition experiments and a fluorescence-based membrane potential assay. Binding affinities and functional activities varied widely across compounds (Ki = 0.32 to >10 000 nM, EC50 = 0.24-1259 nM), with several clear structure-activity relationships (SARs) emerging. Affinity and potency at CB1 changed as a function of the heterocyclic core (indazole > indole > 7-azaindole) and the pendant amino acid side chain (tert-butyl > iso-propyl > iso-butyl > benzyl > ethyl > methyl > hydrogen). Ensemble docking at CB1 revealed a clear steric basis for observed SAR trends. Interestingly, although 15 (PX-1) and 19 (PX-2) have been detected in recreational drug markets, they failed to induce centrally CB1-mediated effects (e.g., hypothermia) in mice using radiobiotelemetry. Together, these data provide insights regarding structural contributions to the cannabimimetic profiles of 17 (5F-AB-PINACA), 18 (5F-ADB-PINACA), 15 (PX-1), 19 (PX-2), 20 (NNL-1), and other SCRA NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Markham
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Eric Sparkes
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Rochelle Boyd
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Shuli Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Jamie J. Manning
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - David Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Felcia Lai
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Eila McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2005, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Callan J. Maloney
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Roy R. Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Iain S. McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2005, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David E. Hibbs
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Richard C. Kevin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2050, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
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7
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Morales-Noé A, Esteve-Turrillas FA, Armenta S. Metabolism of third generation synthetic cannabinoids using zebrafish larvae. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:594-603. [PMID: 34750997 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are the second largest group of new psychoactive substances reported by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in the last decade and case reports bring attention to its high potency effects and its severe toxicity, including fatalities. Moreover, synthetic cannabinoids are usually entirely metabolized and metabolic pathways for many new generation synthetic cannabinoids are still unknown. In this study, the metabolism of five third generation synthetic cannabinoids was evaluated using zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae as 24-h in vivo model studied within 5 days after fertilization. The studied synthetic cannabinoids were MMB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMINACA, MDMB-CHMCZCA, and NNL-3, and the respective metabolites were identified by liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Eleven, six, fourteen, eleven, and four metabolites were identified for MMB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMINACA, MDMB-CHMCZCA, and NNL-3, respectively, and metabolic pathways have been proposed. The use of zebrafish larvae, with a high degree of physiological and genetic homology to humans, is an emerging tool very useful for the identification of metabolic pathways of psychoactive substances. Results obtained in this study compared well with metabolites obtained previously for the same target molecules or structural analogous after in vitro incubation with human or rat hepatocytes. Thus, potential biomarkers for the evaluated compounds are the O-demethylated metabolite for MMB-CHMICA; the oxidative deamination to hydroxyl metabolite for ADB-CHMICA; hydroxyl metabolites at cyclohexylmethyl, tert-butyl, and indazole moieties for ADB-CHMINACA; hydroxyl metabolites at carbazole core, tert-butyl, or cyclohexylmethyl tail moieties for MDMB-CHMCZCA; and amide hydrolyzed, defluorinated, and dihydroxilated metabolite for NNL-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asunción Morales-Noé
- Cellular Biology, Functional Biology and Physical Anthropology Department, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | | | - Sergio Armenta
- Analytical Chemistry Department, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
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8
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Ametovski A, Cairns EA, Grafinger KE, Cannaert A, Deventer MH, Chen S, Wu X, Shepperson CE, Lai F, Ellison R, Gerona R, Blakey K, Kevin R, McGregor IS, Hibbs DE, Glass M, Stove C, Auwärter V, Banister SD. NNL-3: A Synthetic Intermediate or a New Class of Hydroxybenzotriazole Esters with Cannabinoid Receptor Activity? ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:4020-4036. [PMID: 34676751 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain a prolific class of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and continue to expand rapidly. Despite the recent identification of hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) containing SCRAs in synthetic cannabis samples, there is currently no information regarding the pharmacological profile of these NPS with respect to human CB1 and CB2 receptors. In the current study, a series consisting of seven HOBt indole-, indazole-, and 7-azaindole-carboxylates bearing a range of N-alkyl substituents were synthesized and pharmacologically evaluated. Competitive binding assays at CB1 and CB2 demonstrated that all analogues except a 2-methyl-substituted derivative had low affinity for CB1 (Ki = 3.80-43.7 μM) and CB2 (Ki = 2.75-18.2 μM). A fluorometric functional assay revealed that 2-methylindole- and indole-derived HOBt carboxylates were potent and efficacious agonists of CB1 (EC50 = 12.0 and 63.7 nM; Emax = 118 and 120%) and CB2 (EC50 = 10.9 and 321 nM; Emax = 91 and 126%). All other analogues incorporating indazole and 7-azaindole cores and bearing a range of N1-substituents showed relatively low potency for CB1 and CB2. Additionally, a reporter assay monitoring β-arrestin 2 (βarr2) recruitment to the receptor revealed that the 2-methylindole example was the most potent and efficacious at CB1 (EC50 = 131 nM; Emax = 724%) and the most potent at CB2 (EC50 = 38.2 nM; Emax = 51%). As with the membrane potential assay, the indazole and other indole HOBt carboxylates were considerably less potent at both receptors, and analogues comprising a 7-azaindole core showed little activity. Taken together, these data suggest that NNL-3 demonstrates little CB1 receptor activity and is unlikely to be psychoactive in humans. NNL-3 is likely an unintended SCRA manufacturing byproduct. However, the synthesis of NNL-3 analogues proved simple and general, and some of these showed potent cannabimetic profiles in vitro, indicating that HOBt esters of this type may represent an emerging class of SCRA NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Ametovski
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A. Cairns
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Katharina Elisabeth Grafinger
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marie H. Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Shuli Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Xinyi Wu
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Caitlin E. Shepperson
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Felcia Lai
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Ross Ellison
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Roy Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, United States
| | - Karen Blakey
- Illicit Drug Group, Forensic Chemistry, QHFSS, Queensland Health, Coopers Plains, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Richard Kevin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Iain S. McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - David E. Hibbs
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2050, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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9
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Liu CM, Jia W, Meng X, Hua ZD. Identification and quantification of 10 indole/indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoids in 36 herbal blends by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Forensic Sci 2021; 66:2156-2166. [PMID: 34431514 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herbal blends containing synthetic cannabinoids have become popular alternatives to marijuana. The number of synthetic cannabinoids and speed of their emergence enable this group of compounds particularly challenging in terms of detection, monitoring, and responding. In this work, both gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) methods were developed for the identification and quantification of synthetic cannabinoids in herbal blends. Ten types of indole/indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoids, which showed different types of substitutions connected to nitrogen of the indole/indazole carboxamide, were detected in 36 herbal blends. The GC-MS fragmentation routes of indole/indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoids were discussed in detail for structure identification purpose. The concentration range of synthetic cannabinoid in 36 herbal blends was 1.9-50.6 mg/g using GC-MS method, while 1.5-49.0 mg/g by NMR method. Nicotine in herbal blends was quantified by NMR method without using reference material, and showed a variation of 5.3-44.7 mg/g. For quantitative analysis, NMR method showed great advantage in the absence of reference material, while GC-MS method showed great merit for multiple-compound analysis when reference material was available. Therefore, for the quantitative analysis of new emerged synthetic cannabinoid in herbal blends, different methods could be chosen by considering whether reference material is available, as well as the number and types of synthetic cannabinoids detected in a single sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Mei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, P.R.C, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Jia
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, P.R.C, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Meng
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, P.R.C, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Dong Hua
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, P.R.C, Beijing, China
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10
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Alves VL, Gonçalves JL, Aguiar J, Caldeira MJ, Teixeira HM, Câmara JS. Highly sensitive screening and analytical characterization of synthetic cannabinoids in nine different herbal mixtures. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:2257-2273. [PMID: 33575815 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03199-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The popularity of new psychoactive substances among drug users has become a public health concern worldwide. Among them, synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) represent the largest, most diversified and fastest growing group. Commonly known as 'synthetic marijuana' as an alternative to cannabis, these synthetic compounds are easily accessible via the internet and are sold as 'herbal incenses' under different brand names with no information about the chemical composition. In the present work, we aim to integrate gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data as useful strategy for the identification and confirmation of synthetic cannabinoids present in nine seized herbal incenses. The analysis of all samples allowed the initial identification of 9 SCs, namely 5 napthoylindoles (JWH-018, JWH-073, JWH-122, JWH-210, MAM-2201), APINACA, XLR-11 and CP47,497-C8 and its enantiomer. JWH-018 was the most frequently detected synthetic compound (8 of 9 samples), while APINACA and XLR-11 were only identified in one herbal product. Other non-cannabinoid drugs, including oleamide, vitamin E and vitamin E acetate, have also been detected. Oleamide and vitamin E are two adulterants, frequently added to herbal products to mask the active ingredients or added as preservatives. However, to our knowledge, no analytical data about vitamin E acetate was reported in herbal products, being the first time that this compound is identified on this type of samples. The integration data obtained from the used analytical technologies proved to be useful, allowing the preliminary identification of the different SCs in the mixture. Furthermore, the examination of mass spectral fragment ions, as well as the results of both 1D and 2D NMR experiments, enabled the identification and confirmation of the molecular structure of SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera L Alves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal
| | - João L Gonçalves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Joselin Aguiar
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Maria J Caldeira
- Laboratório de Polícia Científica da Polícia Judiciária, Novo edifício-sede da Polícia Judiciária, Rua Gomes Freire, 1169-007, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, I.P., Polo das Ciências de Saúde (Polo III), Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Celas, 3000-548, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal. .,Faculdade de Ciências Exatas e da Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal.
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11
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Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Westphal F, Dreiseitel W, Dowling G, Bowden MJ, Williamson JPB. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists: Analytical profiles and development of QMPSB, QMMSB, QMPCB, 2F-QMPSB, QMiPSB, and SGT-233. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:175-196. [PMID: 32880103 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A diverse assortment of molecules designed to explore the cannabinoid receptor system and considered new psychoactive substances (NPS) have become known as synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs). One group of SCRAs that has received little attention involves those exhibiting sulfamoyl benzoate, sulfamoyl benzamide, and N-benzoylpiperidine based structures. In this study, quinolin-8-yl 4-methyl-3-(piperidine-1-sulfonyl)benzoate (QMPSB), quinolin-8-yl 4-methyl-3-(morpholine-4-sulfonyl)benzoate (QMMSB), quinolin-8-yl 4-methyl-3-(piperidine-1-carbonyl)benzoate (QMPCB, SGT-11), quinolin-8-yl 3-(4,4-difluoropiperidine-1-sulfonyl)-4-methylbenzoate (2F-QMPSB, QMDFPSB, SGT-13), quinolin-8-yl 4-methyl-3-[(propan-2-yl)sulfamoyl]benzoate (QMiPSB, SGT-46), and 3-(4,4-difluoropiperidine-1-sulfonyl)-4-methyl-N-(2-phenylpropan-2-yl)benzamide (SGT-233) were extensively characterized (including data on impurities). The analytical profiles may be useful to researchers and scientists who deal with the emergence of NPS during forensic and clinical investigations. The detection of QMPSB was first published in 2016 but it is worth noting that Stargate International, a company originally formed to develop harm reduction solutions, were involved in the investigation and development of these six compounds for potential release between 2011 and early 2014. Whilst information on the prevalence of use of these particular compounds at the present time is limited, one of the key outcomes of the research performed by Stargate International reviewed here was to set the stage for the quinolin-8-yl ester head group that ultimately led to hybridization with an N-alkyl-1H-indole core to give SGT-21 and SGT-32, which became later known as PB-22 (QMPSB/JWH-018 hybrid) and BB-22, respectively, thus, opening the door to a range of SCRAs carrying the quinolin-8-yl head group from about 2012 onwards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Pierce V Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- Section Narcotics/Toxicology, State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Geraldine Dowling
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland.,Department of Life Sciences, School of Science, Sligo Institute of Technology, Ash Lane, Sligo, Ireland
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12
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Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
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13
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Investigation on the consumption of synthetic cannabinoids among teenagers by the analysis of herbal blends and urine samples. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 186:113298. [PMID: 32325401 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The use of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), which escape conventional detection systems, may be a good alternative to elude routine drug analysis for cannabis. The detection of these drugs in urine is unusual due to their complete and fast metabolism, therefore requiring alternative strategies. In this work, an investigation has been made on SCs consumption by minors (less than 18 years old) in juvenile offenders' centres. 667 urine samples (from 127 minors) were collected after their permits with stay at home. We also studied the SCs from 7 herbal blends available at the smartshop frequented by the minors. Both, urine and herbal blends, were analysed by liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry. The analysis of urine confirmed the absence of more than 200 SCs investigated. Thus, the focus was made on metabolites reported for those SCs identified in the herbal blends collected from the smart-shop. The major metabolites of XLR-11 and UR-144 (N-pentanoic acid and N-(5-hydroxypentyl)) were found in several urine samples. Apart from the main metabolites included in the initial searching, a thorough investigation of more metabolites for these SCs was additionally performed, including MS/MS experiments for the tentative identification of compounds detected in the urine samples. The 16 samples positive to the XLR-11 metabolites were assigned to 6 minors, only 2 of which had recognized consumption. On the basis of the results obtained, preventive and therapeutic interventions must be implemented to reduce the consumption of psychoactive substances and to improve the risk-perception of these substances by minors.
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14
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Genotoxic Properties of Synthetic Cannabinoids on TK6 Human Cells by Flow Cytometry. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21031150. [PMID: 32050487 PMCID: PMC7037131 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21031150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) include several classes of substances such as synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs), an emerging alternative to marijuana, easily purchasable on internet. SCBs are more dangerous than Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol as a consequence of their stronger affinities for the CB1 and CB2 receptors, which may result in longer duration of distinct effects, greater potency, and toxicity. The information on SCBs cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, and long-term effects is scarce. This fact suggests the urgent need to increase available data and to investigate if some SCBs have an impact on the stability of genetic material. Therefore, the aim of the present study was the evaluation of the mutagenic effect of different SCBs belonging to indole- and indazole-structures. The analyzes were conducted in vitro on human TK6 cells and mutagenicity were measured as micronucleus fold increase by flow cytometry. Our results have highlighted, for the first time, the mutagenic capacity of four SCBs, in particular in terms of chromosomal damage induction. We underline the serious potential toxicity of SCBs that suggests the need to proceed with the studies of other different synthetic compounds. Moreover, we identified a method that allows a rapid but effective screening of NPS placed on the market increasingly faster.
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15
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Alam RM, Keating JJ. Adding more "spice" to the pot: A review of the chemistry and pharmacology of newly emerging heterocyclic synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:297-315. [PMID: 31854124 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) first appeared on the international recreational drug market in the early 2000s in the form of SCRA-containing herbal blends. Due to the cannabimimetic effects associated with the consumption of SCRAs, they have acquired an ill-informed reputation for being cheap, safe, and legal alternatives to illicit cannabis. Possessing high potency and affinity for the human cannabinoid receptor subtype-1 (CB1 ) and -2 (CB2 ), it is now understood that the recreational use of SCRAs can have severe adverse health consequences. The major public health problem arising from SCRA use has pressed legislators around the world to employ various control strategies to curb their recreational use. To circumvent legislative control measures, SCRA manufacturers have created a wide range of SCRA analogs that contain, more recently, previously unencountered azaindole, γ-carbolinone, or carbazole heterocyclic scaffolds. At present, little information is available regarding the chemical syntheses of these newly emerging classes of SCRA, from a clandestine perspective. When compared with previous generations of indole- and indazole-type SCRAs, current research suggests that many of these heterocyclic SCRA analogs maintain high affinity and efficacy at both CB1 and CB2 but largely evade legislative control. This review highlights the importance of continued research in the field of SCRA chemistry and pharmacology, as recreational SCRA use remains a global public health issue and represents a serious control challenge for law enforcement agencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Alam
- Analytical & Biological Chemistry Research Facility (ABCRF), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,School of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John J Keating
- Analytical & Biological Chemistry Research Facility (ABCRF), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,School of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.,School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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16
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Potts AJ, Cano C, Thomas SHL, Hill SL. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists: classification and nomenclature. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2019; 58:82-98. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2019.1661425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. J. Potts
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Chemical Threats and Hazards, Medical Toxicology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - C. Cano
- School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - S. H. L. Thomas
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Chemical Threats and Hazards, Medical Toxicology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - S. L. Hill
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Chemical Threats and Hazards, Medical Toxicology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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17
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Fabregat-Safont D, Mardal M, Noble C, Cannaert A, Stove CP, Sancho JV, Linnet K, Hernández F, Ibáñez M. Comprehensive investigation on synthetic cannabinoids: Metabolic behavior and potency testing, using 5F-APP-PICA and AMB-FUBINACA as model compounds. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1358-1368. [PMID: 31192526 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) represented 45% of new psychoactive substances seizures in Europe (data from 2016). The consumption of SCs is an issue of concern due to their still unknown toxicity and effects on human health, the great variety of compounds synthetized, and the continuous modifications being made to their chemical structure to avoid regulatory issues. These compounds are extensively metabolized in the organism and often cannot be detected as the intact molecule in human urine. The monitoring of SCs in forensic samples must be performed by the analysis of their metabolites. In this work, a workflow for the comprehensive study of SC consumption is proposed and applied to 5F-APP-PICA (also known as PX 1 or SRF-30) and AMB-FUBINACA (also known as FUB-AMB or MMB-FUBINACA), based not only on the elucidation of their metabolites but also including functional data using the NanoLuc approach, previously published. Both cannabinoids were completely metabolized by human hepatocytes (12 and 8 metabolites were elucidated by high resolution mass spectrometry for 5F-APP-PICA and AMB-FUBINACA, respectively) and therefore suitable consumption markers are proposed. The bioassays revealed that 5F-APP-PICA presented lower activity than AMB-FUBINACA at CB1 and CB2 receptors, based on the half maximal effective concentration (EC50 ) and the maximum response (Emax ). These results are in agreement with the different intoxication cases found in the literature for AMB-FUBINACA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marie Mardal
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Section of Forensic Chemistry, Faculty of Health and Medicinal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Carolina Noble
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Section of Forensic Chemistry, Faculty of Health and Medicinal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Juan V Sancho
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Section of Forensic Chemistry, Faculty of Health and Medicinal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Félix Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - María Ibáñez
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
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18
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Presley BC, Logan BK, Jansen-Varnum SA. In vitro Phase I metabolism of indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-CHMINACA via human liver microsome incubation and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1264-1276. [PMID: 31108568 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids have proliferated over the last decade and have become a major public health and analytical challenge, critically impacting the clinical and forensic communities. Indazole carboxamide class synthetic cannabinoids have been particularly rampant, and exhibit severe toxic effects upon consumption due to their high binding affinity and potency at the cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2 ). MDMB-CHMINACA, methyl 2-[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido]-3,3-dimethylbutanoate, a compound of this chemical class, has been identified in forensic casework and is structurally related to several other synthetic cannabinoids. This study presents the first extensive report on the Phase I metabolic profile of MDMB-CHMINACA, a potent synthetic cannabinoid. The in vitro metabolism of MDMB-CHMINACA was determined via incubation with human liver microsomes and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The accurate masses of precursor and fragments, mass error (ppm), and chemical formula were obtained for each metabolite. Twenty-seven metabolites were identified, encompassing twelve metabolite types. The major biotransformations observed were hydroxylation and ester hydrolysis. Hydroxylations were located predominantly on the cyclohexylmethyl (CHM) moiety. Ester hydrolysis was followed by additional biotransformations, including dehydrogenation; mono- and dihydroxylation and ketone formation, each with dehydrogenation. Minor metabolites were identified and reported. The authors propose that CHM-monohydroxylated metabolites specific to MDMB-CHMINACA are the most suitable candidates for implementation into bioanalytical assays to demonstrate consumption of this synthetic cannabinoid. Due to the structural similarity of MDMB-CHMINACA and currently trending synthetic cannabinoids whose metabolic profiles have not been reported, the results of this study can be used as a guide to predict their metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Presley
- Temple University Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Barry K Logan
- The Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Susan A Jansen-Varnum
- Temple University Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
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19
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Antonides LH, Cannaert A, Norman C, Vives L, Harrison A, Costello A, Nic Daeid N, Stove CP, Sutcliffe OB, McKenzie C. Enantiospecific Synthesis, Chiral Separation, and Biological Activity of Four Indazole-3-Carboxamide-Type Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists and Their Detection in Seized Drug Samples. Front Chem 2019; 7:321. [PMID: 31157203 PMCID: PMC6532652 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) have been the largest group of illicit psychoactive substances reported to international monitoring and early warning systems for many years. Carboxamide-type SCRAs are amongst the most prevalent and potent. Enantiospecific synthesis and characterization of four indazole-3-carboxamides, AMB-FUBINACA, AB-FUBINACA, 5F-MDMB-PINACA (5F-ADB), and AB-CHMINACA is reported. The interactions of the compounds with CB1 and CB2 receptors were investigated using a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) activation assay based on functional complementation of a split NanoLuc luciferase and EC50 (a measure of potency) and Emax (a measure of efficacy) values determined. All compounds demonstrated higher potency at the CB2 receptor than at the CB1 receptor and (S)-enantiomers had an enhanced potency to both receptors over the (R)-enantiomers. The relative potency of the enantiomers to the CB2 receptor is affected by structural features. The difference was more pronounced for compounds with an amine moiety (AB-FUBINACA and AB-CHMINACA) than those with an ester moiety (AMB-FUBINACA and 5F-MDMB-PINACA). An HPLC method was developed to determine the prevalence of (R)-enantiomers in seized samples. Lux® Amylose-1 [Amylose tris(3,5-dimethylphenylcarbamate)] has the greatest selectivity for the SCRAs with a terminal methyl ester moiety and a Lux® i-Cellulose-5 column for SCRAs with a terminal amide moiety. Optimized isocratic separation methods yielded enantiomer resolution values (Rs) ≥ 1.99. Achiral GC-MS analysis of seized herbal materials (n = 16), found 5F-MDMB-PINACA (<1.0-91.5 mg/g herbal material) and AMB-FUBINACA (15.5-58.5 mg/g herbal material), respectively. EMB-FUBINACA, AMB-CHMICA, 5F-ADB-PINACA isomer 2, and ADB-CHMINACA were also tentatively identified. Analysis using chiral chromatography coupled to photodiode array and quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (chiral HPLC-PDA-QToF-MS/MS) confirmed that the (S)-enantiomer predominated in all samples (93.6-99.3% (S)-enantiomer). Small but significant differences in synthesis precursor enantiopurity may provide significant differences between synthesis batches or suppliers and warrants further study. A method to compare potency between samples containing different SCRAs at varying concentrations was developed and applied in this small preliminary study. A 10-fold difference in the "intrinsic" potency of samples in the study was noted. With the known heterogeneity of SCRA infused materials, the approach provides a simplified method for assessing and communicating the risk of their use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lysbeth H. Antonides
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Loelia Vives
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
- IUT “A” Paul Sabatier, Département de Chimie, Castres, France
| | | | - Andrew Costello
- Manchester Drug Analysis and Knowledge Exchange, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Greater Manchester Police, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Niamh Nic Daeid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Oliver B. Sutcliffe
- Manchester Drug Analysis and Knowledge Exchange, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Division of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Forensic Drug Research Group, Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
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20
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Longworth M, Reekie TA, Blakey K, Boyd R, Connor M, Kassiou M. New-generation azaindole-adamantyl-derived synthetic cannabinoids. Forensic Toxicol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-019-00466-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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21
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Martek BA, Mihelač M, Gazvoda M, Virant M, Urankar D, Krivec M, Gostič T, Nemec B, Koštrun B, Janežič M, Klemenc S, Košmrlj J. 1
H−
15
N HMBC NMR as a tool for rapid identification of isomeric azaindoles: The case of 5F‐MDMB‐P7AICA. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:617-625. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mateja Mihelač
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical TechnologyUniversity of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Martin Gazvoda
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical TechnologyUniversity of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Miha Virant
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical TechnologyUniversity of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Damijana Urankar
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical TechnologyUniversity of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Marko Krivec
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical TechnologyUniversity of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Tomaž Gostič
- RS Ministry of the Interior, General Police DirectorateNational Forensic Laboratory Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Brigita Nemec
- RS Ministry of the Interior, General Police DirectorateNational Forensic Laboratory Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Bojana Koštrun
- RS Ministry of the Interior, General Police DirectorateNational Forensic Laboratory Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Mojca Janežič
- RS Ministry of the Interior, General Police DirectorateNational Forensic Laboratory Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Sonja Klemenc
- RS Ministry of the Interior, General Police DirectorateNational Forensic Laboratory Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Janez Košmrlj
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical TechnologyUniversity of Ljubljana Ljubljana Slovenia
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22
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Banister SD, Adams A, Kevin RC, Macdonald C, Glass M, Boyd R, Connor M, McGregor IS, Havel CM, Bright SJ, Vilamala MV, Lladanosa CG, Barratt MJ, Gerona RR. Synthesis and pharmacology of new psychoactive substance 5F-CUMYL-P7AICA, a scaffold- hopping analog of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists 5F-CUMYL-PICA and 5F-CUMYL-PINACA. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:279-291. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D. Banister
- Department of Pathology; Stanford University School of Medicine; Stanford CA 94305 USA
| | - Axel Adams
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory; University of California; San Francisco CA 94143 USA
| | - Richard C. Kevin
- School of Psychology; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Christa Macdonald
- School of Medical Sciences; The University of Auckland; Auckland New Zealand
| | - Michelle Glass
- School of Medical Sciences; The University of Auckland; Auckland New Zealand
| | - Rochelle Boyd
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Macquarie University; NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Macquarie University; NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Iain S. McGregor
- School of Psychology; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Christopher M. Havel
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology; University of California; San Francisco CA 94143 USA
| | - Stephen J. Bright
- School of Medical and Health Science; Edith Cowan University; Joondalup Australia
- National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences; Curtin University; Perth Australia
| | | | | | - Monica J. Barratt
- National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences; Curtin University; Perth Australia
- Drug Policy Modelling Program, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW; Sydney NSW Australia
- Behaviours and Health Risks Program; Burnet Institute; Melbourne VIC Australia
| | - Roy R. Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring Laboratory; University of California; San Francisco CA 94143 USA
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23
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Mogler L, Franz F, Wilde M, Huppertz LM, Halter S, Angerer V, Moosmann B, Auwärter V. Phase I metabolism of the carbazole-derived synthetic cannabinoids EG-018, EG-2201, and MDMB-CHMCZCA and detection in human urine samples. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:1417-1429. [PMID: 29726116 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a structurally diverse class of new psychoactive substances. Most SCs used for recreational purposes are based on indole or indazole core structures. EG-018 (naphthalen-1-yl(9-pentyl-9H-carbazol-3-yl)methanone), EG-2201 ((9-(5-fluoropentyl)-9H-carbazol-3-yl)(naphthalen-1-yl)methanone), and MDMB-CHMCZCA (methyl 2-(9-(cyclohexylmethyl)-9H-carbazole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate) are 3 representatives of a structural subclass of SCs, characterized by a carbazole core system. In vitro and in vivo phase I metabolism studies were conducted to identify the most suitable metabolites for the detection of these substances in urine screening. Detection and characterization of metabolites were performed by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-QToF-MS). Eleven in vivo metabolites were detected in urine samples positive for metabolites of EG-018 (n = 8). A hydroxypentyl metabolite, most probably the 4-hydroxypentyl isomer, and an N-dealkylated metabolite mono-hydroxylated at the carbazole core system were most abundant. In vitro studies of EG-018 and EG-2201 indicated that oxidative defluorination of the 5-fluoropentyl side chain of EG-2201 as well as dealkylation led to common metabolites with EG-018. This has to be taken into account for interpretation of analytical findings. A differentiation between EG-018 and EG-2201 (n = 1) uptake is possible by the detection of compound-specific in vivo phase I metabolites evaluated in this study. Out of 30 metabolites detected in urine samples of MDMB-CHMCZCA users (n = 20), a metabolite mono-hydroxylated at the cyclohexyl methyl tail is considered the most suitable compound-specific consumption marker while a biotransformation product of mono-hydroxylation in combination with hydrolysis of the terminal methyl ester function provides best sensitivity due to its high abundance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Mogler
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Florian Franz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maurice Wilde
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Laura M Huppertz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Halter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Verena Angerer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Bjoern Moosmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Kantonsspital St Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
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24
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Banister SD, Connor M. The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonist New Psychoactive Substances: Evolution. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2018; 252:191-226. [PMID: 30105473 DOI: 10.1007/164_2018_144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are the largest and most structurally diverse class of new psychoactive substances (NPS). Although the earliest SCRA NPS were simply repurposed from historical academic manuscripts or pharmaceutical patents describing cannabinoid ligands, recent examples bear hallmarks of rational design. SCRA NPS manufacturers have applied traditional medicinal chemistry strategies (such as molecular hybridization, bioisosteric replacement, and scaffold hopping) to existing cannabinoid templates in order to generate new molecules that circumvent structure-based legislation. Most SCRAs potently activate cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 receptors (CB1 and CB2, respectively), with the former contributing to the psychoactivity of these substances. SCRAs are generally more toxic than the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) found in cannabis, and this may be due to ligand bias, metabolism, or off-target activity. This chapter will chart the evolution of recently identified SCRA NPS chemotypes, as well as their putative manufacturing by-products and thermolytic degradants, and describe structure-activity relationships within each class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Banister
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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