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Höfert L, Baumann S, Dreßler J, Becker S. Does the Quantification of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid A in Serum/Plasma Provide Any Additional Information About Consumption Pattern from Drivers Under the Influence of Cannabis? Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024. [PMID: 38512708 DOI: 10.1089/can.2023.0172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A) is one of the main ingredients of cannabis plants and is converted to the psychoactive substance Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) by decarboxylation during heating above ∼90°C. During the consumption of cannabis, a varying proportion of THCA-A is absorbed into the body. Therefore, the quantification of THCA-A in serum/plasma might provide additional information on consumption behavior in driving under the influence of cannabis cases. Materials and Methods: In this study, an already established gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) method for the quantification of THC, 11-OH-THC, and THC-COOH in serum and plasma samples was extended to include THCA-A. This validated method was then applied to 1228 routinely achieved serum/plasma samples from drivers suspected of cannabis consumption in Western Saxony. Two different grouping systems for chronic/occasional consumption, one system for acute/subacute consumption, Huestis formulas, and the cannabis influence factor (CIF) were used for evaluation. Results: Method validation showed appropriate results for forensic toxicological routine analysis. Limit of detection and lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) for THCA-A were 0.3 and 1.0 ng/mL, respectively. Reproducibility was <11% and accuracy ranged between 104% and 107%. THCA-A was stable in native samples at least for 2 weeks at room temperature or 4°C as well as 1 month at -20°C. Freeze-thaw stability for three cycles and processed sample stability over 3 days was proven. A total of 865 cases with a THC concentration above the German analytical cutoff of 1 ng/mL as well as the analytical LLOQs of 0.9 and 2.5 ng/mL for 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH, respectively, were included in further statistical analysis. In 407 (47.1%) of these samples, THCA-A was quantifiable. Different statistical analyses indicated a correlation between THCA-A and THC concentrations in cases of chronic and acute consumption. In addition, an increase of chronic and acute cases with increasing THCA-A concentrations was observed. However, no correlation between THCA-A and CIF was found. Discussion: These data show that THCA-A might be an additional indicative marker to provide information about consumption frequency and acuteness. Additional studies with known consumption frequencies and times are required to verify these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Höfert
- Department Forensic Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sven Baumann
- Department Forensic Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan Dreßler
- Department Forensic Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Susen Becker
- Department Forensic Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Forensic Medicine, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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Zancanaro F, Tedeschi G, Zamengo L, Frasson S, Frison G. Determination of cannabinoids in 50 μL whole blood samples by online extraction using turbulent flow chromatography and LC-HRAM-Orbitrap-MS: Application on driving under the influence of drugs cases. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:210-220. [PMID: 37343943 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of cannabinoids in whole blood is usually done by traditional mass spectrometry (MS) techniques, after offline cleanup or derivatization steps which can be lengthy, laborious, and expensive. We present a simple, fast, highly specific, and sensitive method for the determination of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), 11-hydroxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in 50 μL whole blood samples. After the addition of deuterated internal standards (IS) and a simple protein precipitation step, an online extraction of sample supernatants using turbulent flow chromatography (TurboFlow-Thermo Scientific) was carried out. Analytes were separated on a C18 analytical column and detected by LC-HRAM-Orbitrap-MS using a Thermo Scientific Q Exactive Focus MS system. MS detection was performed in polarity switching and selected ion monitoring (SIM) modes using five specific acquisition windows, at a resolution of 70,000 (FWHM). Total run time was about 10 min including preanalytical steps. Method validation was carried out by determining limit of detection (LOD), lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ), linearity range, analytical accuracy, intra-assay and interassay precision, carry-over, matrix effect, extraction recovery, and selectivity, for all analytes. Measurement uncertainties were also evaluated, and a decision rule was set with confidence for forensic purposes. The method may become suitable for clinical and forensic toxicology applications, taking advantage of the small matrix volume required, the simple and cost-effective sample preparation procedure, and the fast analytical run time. Performances were monitored over a long-term period and tested on 7620 driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) samples, including 641 positive samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio Zancanaro
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3 Serenissima, Venice, Italy
| | - Gianpaola Tedeschi
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3 Serenissima, Venice, Italy
| | - Luca Zamengo
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3 Serenissima, Venice, Italy
| | - Samuela Frasson
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3 Serenissima, Venice, Italy
| | - Giampietro Frison
- Laboratory of Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, DMPO Department, AULSS 3 Serenissima, Venice, Italy
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Dawidowicz AL, Typek R, Dybowski MP, Holowinski P, Rombel M. Cannabigerol (CBG) signal enhancement in its analysis by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Toxicol 2024; 42:31-44. [PMID: 37755669 PMCID: PMC10808273 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-023-00673-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE According to recent reports, cannabigerol (CBG) concentration level in blood and body fluids may have forensic utility as a highly specific albeit insensitive biomarker of recent cannabis smoking. While the analytical sensitivity of cannabidiol (CBD), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabichromene (CBC) or cannabinol (CBN) estimation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is similar and sufficiently high, it is exceptionally low in the case of CBG (ca. 25 times lower than for the other mentioned cannabinoids). The purpose of this study is to explain the reasons for the extremely low analytical sensitivity of GC-MS in estimating CBG and to present possible ways of its improvement. METHODS Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data and GC-MS responses to CBG and its various derivatization and transformation products were studied. RESULTS The validation data of individual derivatives of CBG and its transformation products were established. CBG silylation/acylation or hydration allows to decrease LOD about 3 times, whereas the formation of pyranic CBG derivative leads to 10-times decrease of LOD. The paper enriches the literature of the subject by providing MS and NMR spectra, not published so far, for derivatives of CBG and its transformation products. The most likely cause of low GC-MS response to CBG is also presented. CONCLUSIONS The presented results shows that although the signal increase of CBG can be obtained through its derivatization by silylation and/or acylation, the greatest increase is observed in the case of its cyclization to the pyranic CBG form during the sample preparation process. The CBG cyclization procedure is very simple and workable in estimating this cannabinoid in blood/plasma samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej L Dawidowicz
- Department of Chromatography, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Rafal Typek
- Department of Chromatography, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031, Lublin, Poland
| | - Michal P Dybowski
- Department of Chromatography, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031, Lublin, Poland
| | - Piotr Holowinski
- Department of Chromatography, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031, Lublin, Poland
| | - Michal Rombel
- Department of Chromatography, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031, Lublin, Poland
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Rague JM, Ma M, Dooley G, Sam Wang G, Friedman K, Henthorn TK, Brooks-Russell A, Kosnett MJ. The minor cannabinoid cannabigerol (CBG) is a highly specific blood biomarker of recent cannabis smoking. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2023; 61:363-369. [PMID: 36939145 PMCID: PMC10428941 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2023.2173076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The determination of recent cannabis use is of forensic interest in the investigation of automotive crashes, workplace incidents and other mishaps. Because Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol may persist in blood after psychoactive effects of intoxication resolve, particularly in regular users, short-lived minor cannabinoids such as cannabigerol have merited examination as adjunct indicators of recent cannabis inhalation. METHODS As part of an observational cohort study, whole blood cannabinoids including cannabigerol were measured in whole blood by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry at baseline, and 30 minutes after initiation of a 15-minute supervised interval of ad libitum cannabis smoking in occasional (1-2 days/week over the past 30 days) (n = 24) and daily cannabis smokers (n = 32). Per protocol, subjects self-reported abstention from inhaling cannabis (>8 h) or ingesting cannabis (>12 h) prior to baseline measurement. RESULTS At baseline, none of the occasional users had detectable cannabigerol (limit of detection = 0.2 µg/L), whereas cannabigerol was detectable post-smoking in 7 of 24 (29%). Among daily cannabis users, 2 of 32 (6%) had detectable cannabigerol at baseline, increasing to 21 of 32 (66%) post-smoking. The odds ratio for recent cannabis smoking associated with a detectable cannabigerol was 27 (95% confidence interval: 6.6, 110.3). In this mixed cohort of occasional and daily cannabis users, receiver operator characteristic curve analysis indicated that whole blood cannabigerol concentration of ≥ 0.2 µg/L had 96% specificity, 50% sensitivity, and 73% accuracy for identifying a 15-minute interval of ad libitum cannabis smoking initiated 30 minutes earlier. Post smoking blood Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (median = 5.6 µg/L in occasional users, 21.3 µg/L in daily users) was significantly correlated with post-smoking cannabigerol (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION Whole blood cannabigerol may have forensic utility as a highly specific albeit insensitive biomarker of recent cannabis smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M. Rague
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Ming Ma
- Department of Community and Behavioral Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Gregory Dooley
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - George Sam Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Kyle Friedman
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver Health, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Thomas K. Henthorn
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO United States
| | - Ashley Brooks-Russell
- Department of Community and Behavioral Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Michael J. Kosnett
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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LoParco CR, Rossheim ME, Walters ST, Zhou Z, Olsson S, Sussman SY. Delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol: a scoping review and commentary. Addiction 2023; 118:1011-1028. [PMID: 36710464 DOI: 10.1111/add.16142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is a psychoactive substance from the Cannabis plant that has been rising in popularity in the United States since the 2018 US Farm Bill implicitly legalized it. This study reviewed research from peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed (e.g. anecdotal and news) reports related to delta-8 THC to summarize current knowledge and implications for public health and safety. METHODS A scoping review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Google as search engines, leading to the identification of 103 documents that were summarized. The themes that emerged were (1) legality, (2) use (popularity, motives, psychoactivity/potency, benefits/consequences), (3) synthesis (byproducts, laboratory testing) and (4) retail (availability, price, packaging, youth-oriented marketing). A second author independently coded 20% of the documents, which verified the categorization of articles by these emergent themes. RESULTS Most research used animal/cell models or focused upon ways to identify the chemical structure of delta-8 THC in various products. Findings suggest that people often use delta-8 THC as a substitute for other substances. Anecdotally, delta-8 THC is a less potent psychoactive than delta-9 THC; however, several negative consequences have been reported. There is no federal age restriction for purchase/possession of delta-8 THC products. Delta-8 THC is readily accessible on-line, is typically less expensive than delta-9 THC and is often marketed in ways that would seemingly appeal to children. There are no regulations on synthesis, resulting in products being contaminated and/or yielding inconsistent effects. There have been thousands of calls to US poison control centers due to accidental delta-8 THC exposure among minors. CONCLUSIONS Most research on delta-8 THC is largely anecdotal, not peer-reviewed and does not involve human subjects. Future research should examine delta-8 THC use using nationally representative samples to more clearly understand the prevalence and consequences of use. Laws are needed to mitigate the risks of using delta-8 THC, particularly quality control of synthesis and minimum purchase age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassidy R LoParco
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Matthew E Rossheim
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Scott T Walters
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Zhengyang Zhou
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Sofia Olsson
- School of Medicine, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Steve Y Sussman
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Jastrząb A, Jarocka-Karpowicz I, Skrzydlewska E. The Origin and Biomedical Relevance of Cannabigerol. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147929. [PMID: 35887277 PMCID: PMC9322760 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The constant search for new pharmacologically active compounds, especially those that do not exhibit toxic effects, intensifies the interest in plant-based ingredients and their potential use in pharmacotherapy. One of the plants that has great therapeutic potential is Cannabis sativa L., a source of the psychoactive Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), namely cannabidiol (CBD), which exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and cannabigerol (CBG)-a biologically active compound that is present in much smaller quantities. CBG is generated during the non-enzymatic decarboxylation of cannabigerolic acid, a key compound in the process of biosynthesis of phytocannabinoids and consequently the precursor to various phytocannabinoids. By interacting with G-protein-coupled receptors, CBG exhibits a wide range of biological activities, inter alia, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antifungal activities, regulation of the redox balance, and neuromodulatory effects. Due to the wide spectrum of biological activities, CBG seems to be a very promising compound to be used in the treatment of diseases that require multidirectional pharmacotherapy. Moreover, it is suggested that due to the relatively rapid metabolism of cannabigerol, determination of the concentration of the phytocannabinoid in blood or oral fluid can be used to determine cannabis use. Therefore, it seems obvious that new therapeutic approaches using CBG can be expected.
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Frei P, Frauchiger S, Scheurer E, Mercer-Chalmers-Bender K. Quantitative determination of five cannabinoids in blood and urine by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry applying automated on-line solid phase extraction. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1223-1233. [PMID: 35187817 PMCID: PMC9543167 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is the most frequently consumed illegal substance worldwide. More recently, an increasing number of legal cannabis products low in psychoactive Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) but high in non‐intoxicating cannabidiol (CBD) are being more widely consumed. While the detection and quantification of THC and its metabolites in biological matrices is an important forensic‐toxicological task, additional detection of CBD is also important, for example, when examining the plausibility of consumer's statements. This report describes the method validation for the quantitative determination of THC and its two major metabolites, 11‐hydroxy‐THC (OH‐THC) and 11‐nor‐9‐carboxy‐THC (THC‐COOH), as well as CBD and cannabinol (CBN) in whole blood and urine. The method employs automated on‐line solid phase extraction coupled to gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS). The method was fully validated according to guidelines of the Swiss Society of Legal Medicine (SGRM) and the Society of Toxicological and Forensic Chemistry (GTFCh). The method fulfilled the validation criteria regarding analytical limits, accuracy and precision, extraction efficacy, and sample stability. The limits of detection (LODs) in whole blood and urine were 0.15 ng/mL for THC, OH‐THC and CBD, 0.1 ng/mL for CBN, and 1.0 ng/mL for THC‐COOH. The limits of quantification (LOQ) in whole blood and urine were 0.3 ng/mL for THC, OH‐THC and CBD, 0.2 ng/mL for CBN, and 3.0 ng/mL for THC‐COOH. The fully validated and automated method allows sensitive and robust measurement of cannabinoids in whole blood and urine. Detection of CBD provides additional information regarding consumed products.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Frei
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - S Frauchiger
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - E Scheurer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - K Mercer-Chalmers-Bender
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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