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Moon S, Zhao YT. Spatial, temporal, and cell-type-specific expression profiles of genes encoding heparan sulfate biosynthesis enzymes and proteoglycan core proteins. Glycobiology 2021; 31:1308-1318. [PMID: 34132783 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwab054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in almost all animal cells and plays an important role in various biological processes. HS functions mainly via covalently binding to core proteins to form HS proteoglycans (HSPGs), which are heterogeneous in the lengths of the HS chain, the modifications on HS, and the core proteins. The molecular mechanisms underlying HSPG heterogeneity, although widely studied, are not yet fully defined. The expression profiles of HS biosynthesis enzymes and HSPG core proteins likely contribute to the HSPG heterogeneity, but these expression profiles remain poorly characterized. To investigate the expression profiles of genes encoding HS biosynthesis enzymes and HSPG core proteins, we systematically integrated the publicly available RNA sequencing data in mice. To reveal the spatial expression of these genes, we analyzed their expression in 21 mouse tissues. To reveal the temporal expression of these genes, we analyzed their expression at 17 time points during the mouse forebrain development. To determine the cell-type-specific expression of these genes, we obtained their expression profiles in 23 cell types in the mouse cerebral cortex by integrating single nucleus RNA sequencing data. Our findings demonstrate the spatial, temporal, and cell-type-specific expression of genes encoding HS biosynthesis enzymes and HSPG core proteins and represent a valuable resource to the HS research community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohyun Moon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY, 11568, USA
| | - Ying-Tao Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY, 11568, USA
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2
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Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans Biosynthesis and Post Synthesis Mechanisms Combine Few Enzymes and Few Core Proteins to Generate Extensive Structural and Functional Diversity. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25184215. [PMID: 32937952 PMCID: PMC7570499 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25184215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycosylation is a common and widespread post-translational modification that affects a large majority of proteins. Of these, a small minority, about 20, are specifically modified by the addition of heparan sulfate, a linear polysaccharide from the glycosaminoglycan family. The resulting molecules, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, nevertheless play a fundamental role in most biological functions by interacting with a myriad of proteins. This large functional repertoire stems from the ubiquitous presence of these molecules within the tissue and a tremendous structural variety of the heparan sulfate chains, generated through both biosynthesis and post synthesis mechanisms. The present review focusses on how proteoglycans are “gagosylated” and acquire structural complexity through the concerted action of Golgi-localized biosynthesis enzymes and extracellular modifying enzymes. It examines, in particular, the possibility that these enzymes form complexes of different modes of organization, leading to the synthesis of various oligosaccharide sequences.
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Ma SKY, Chan ASF, Rubab A, Chan WCW, Chan D. Extracellular Matrix and Cellular Plasticity in Musculoskeletal Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:781. [PMID: 32984311 PMCID: PMC7477050 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular plasticity refers to the ability of cell fates to be reprogrammed given the proper signals, allowing for dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation into different cell fates. In vitro, this can be induced through direct activation of gene expression, however this process does not naturally occur in vivo. Instead, the microenvironment consisting of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and signaling factors, directs the signals presented to cells. Often the ECM is involved in regulating both biochemical and mechanical signals. In stem cell populations, this niche is necessary for maintenance and proper function of the stem cell pool. However, recent studies have demonstrated that differentiated or lineage restricted cells can exit their current state and transform into another state under different situations during development and regeneration. This may be achieved through (1) cells responding to a changing niche; (2) cells migrating and encountering a new niche; and (3) formation of a transitional niche followed by restoration of the homeostatic niche to sequentially guide cells along the regenerative process. This review focuses on examples in musculoskeletal biology, with the concept of ECM regulating cells and stem cells in development and regeneration, extending beyond the conventional concept of small population of progenitor cells, but under the right circumstances even “lineage-restricted” or differentiated cells can be reprogrammed to enter into a different fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Ka Yan Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | - Aqsa Rubab
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wilson Cheuk Wing Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Department of Orthopedics Surgery and Traumatology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, China.,The University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
| | - Danny Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,The University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
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Cho HJ, Shan Y, Whittington NC, Wray S. Nasal Placode Development, GnRH Neuronal Migration and Kallmann Syndrome. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:121. [PMID: 31355196 PMCID: PMC6637222 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of Gonadotropin releasing hormone-1 (GnRH) neurons is important for a functional reproduction system in vertebrates. Disruption of GnRH results in hypogonadism and if accompanied by anosmia is termed Kallmann Syndrome (KS). From their origin in the nasal placode, GnRH neurons migrate along the olfactory-derived vomeronasal axons to the nasal forebrain junction and then turn caudally into the developing forebrain. Although research on the origin of GnRH neurons, their migration and genes associated with KS has identified multiple factors that influence development of this system, several aspects still remain unclear. This review discusses development of the olfactory system, factors that regulate GnRH neuron formation and development of the olfactory system, migration of the GnRH neurons from the nose into the brain, and mutations in humans with KS that result from disruption of normal GnRH/olfactory systems development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ju Cho
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Yufei Shan
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Niteace C Whittington
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Susan Wray
- Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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5
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Wang X, Li Z, Guo Y, Wang Y, Sun G, Jiang R, Kang X, Han R. Identification of a novel 43-bp insertion in the heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase 3 (HS6ST3) gene and its associations with growth and carcass traits in chickens. Anim Biotechnol 2018; 30:252-259. [DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2018.1479712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangnan Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhuanjian Li
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yaping Guo
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yanbin Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Guirong Sun
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ruirui Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiangtao Kang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ruili Han
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
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Kaltenbach DD, Jaishankar D, Hao M, Beer JC, Volin MV, Desai UR, Tiwari V. Sulfotransferase and Heparanase: Remodeling Engines in Promoting Virus Infection and Disease Development. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1315. [PMID: 30555321 PMCID: PMC6282075 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
An extraordinary binding site generated in heparan sulfate (HS) structures, during its biosynthesis, provides a unique opportunity to interact with multiple protein ligands including viral proteins, and therefore adds tremendous value to this master molecule. An example of such a moiety is the sulfation at the C3 position of glucosamine residues in HS chain via 3-O sulfotransferase (3-OST) enzymes, which generates a unique virus-cell fusion receptor during herpes simplex virus (HSV) entry and spread. Emerging evidence now suggests that the unique patterns in HS sulfation assist multiple viruses in invading host cells at various steps of their life cycles. In addition, sulfated-HS structures are known to assist in invading host defense mechanisms and initiating multiple inflammatory processes; a critical event in the disease development. All these processes are detrimental for the host and therefore raise the question of how HS-sulfation is regulated. Epigenetic modulations have been shown to be implicated in these reactions during HSV infection as well as in HS modifying enzyme sulfotransferases, and therefore pose a critical component in answering it. Interestingly, heparanase (HPSE) activity is shown to be upregulated during virus infection and multiple other diseases assisting in virus replication to promote cell and tissue damage. These phenomena suggest that sulfotransferases and HPSE serve as key players in extracellular matrix remodeling and possibly generating unique signatures in a given disease. Therefore, identifying the epigenetic regulation of OST genes, and HPSE resulting in altered yet specific sulfation patterns in HS chain during virus infection, will be a significant a step toward developing potential diagnostic markers and designing novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik D Kaltenbach
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Dinesh Jaishankar
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Meng Hao
- Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Jacob C Beer
- Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Michael V Volin
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Umesh R Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
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Iravani O, Bay BH, Yip GWC. Silencing HS6ST3 inhibits growth and progression of breast cancer cells through suppressing IGF1R and inducing XAF1. Exp Cell Res 2016; 350:380-389. [PMID: 28017727 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2016.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Revised: 12/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfation is biologically edited by 6-O-sulfotransferases (HS6STs) within heparan sulfate chains. Three isoforms of HS6ST have been identified. These enzymes are found to be differentially expressed in a variety of tissues. Recently, several studies have shown that dysregulation of 6-O-sulfotransferases could be involved in tumorigenesis of several cancers. This study aimed to analyze the expression and function of HS6ST3 in breast cancer. HS6ST3 was found up-regulated in T47D, MCF7 and MDA-MB231 breast cancer cell lines. HS6ST3 was then silenced in T47D and MCF7 using siRNA. Silencing HS6ST3 diminished tumor cell growth, migration and invasion, but enhanced cell adhesion and apoptosis in breast cancer. Gene microarray analysis revealed that silencing HS6ST3 significantly changed the expression of IGF1R and XAF1 in breast cancer cells. Further functional studies showed that the cellular processes were mediated by IGF1R and XAF1 after silencing HS6ST3 in breast cancer cells. Together these results indicate that HS6ST3 might be involved in the tumorigenesis of breast cancer and it could be a promising target in breast cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Iravani
- Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Boon-Huat Bay
- Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - George Wai-Cheong Yip
- Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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The "in and out" of glucosamine 6-O-sulfation: the 6th sense of heparan sulfate. Glycoconj J 2016; 34:285-298. [PMID: 27812771 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-016-9736-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The biological properties of Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides essentially rely on their ability to bind and modulate a multitude of protein ligands. These interactions involve internal oligosaccharide sequences defined by their sulfation patterns. Amongst these, the 6-O-sulfation of HS contributes significantly to the polysaccharide structural diversity and is critically involved in the binding of many proteins. HS 6-O-sulfation is catalyzed by 6-O-sulfotransferases (6OSTs) during biosynthesis, and it is further modified by the post-synthetic action of 6-O-endosulfatases (Sulfs), two enzyme families that remain poorly characterized. The aim of the present review is to summarize the contribution of 6-O-sulfates in HS structure/function relationships and to discuss the present knowledge on the complex mechanisms regulating HS 6-O-sulfation.
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Tillo M, Charoy C, Schwarz Q, Maden CH, Davidson K, Fantin A, Ruhrberg C. 2- and 6-O-sulfated proteoglycans have distinct and complementary roles in cranial axon guidance and motor neuron migration. Development 2016; 143:1907-13. [PMID: 27048738 PMCID: PMC4920156 DOI: 10.1242/dev.126854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The correct migration and axon extension of neurons in the developing nervous system is essential for the appropriate wiring and function of neural networks. Here, we report that O-sulfotransferases, a class of enzymes that modify heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), are essential to regulate neuronal migration and axon development. We show that the 6-O-sulfotransferases HS6ST1 and HS6ST2 are essential for cranial axon patterning, whilst the 2-O-sulfotransferase HS2ST (also known as HS2ST1) is important to regulate the migration of facial branchiomotor (FBM) neurons in the hindbrain. We have also investigated how HS2ST interacts with other signals in the hindbrain and show that fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signalling regulates FBM neuron migration in an HS2ST-dependent manner. Summary: 2-O-sulfated proteoglycans are essential for cranial motor neuron migration, whereas 6-O-sulfated proteoglycans regulate cranial axon guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Tillo
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Camille Charoy
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Quenten Schwarz
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Charlotte H Maden
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Kathryn Davidson
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Alessandro Fantin
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK
| | - Christiana Ruhrberg
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London EC1V 9EL, UK Yale Cardiovascular Research Centre, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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Lung Regeneration: Endogenous and Exogenous Stem Cell Mediated Therapeutic Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17010128. [PMID: 26797607 PMCID: PMC4730369 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17010128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The tissue turnover of unperturbed adult lung is remarkably slow. However, after injury or insult, a specialised group of facultative lung progenitors become activated to replenish damaged tissue through a reparative process called regeneration. Disruption in this process results in healing by fibrosis causing aberrant lung remodelling and organ dysfunction. Post-insult failure of regeneration leads to various incurable lung diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Therefore, identification of true endogenous lung progenitors/stem cells, and their regenerative pathway are crucial for next-generation therapeutic development. Recent studies provide exciting and novel insights into postnatal lung development and post-injury lung regeneration by native lung progenitors. Furthermore, exogenous application of bone marrow stem cells, embryonic stem cells and inducible pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) show evidences of their regenerative capacity in the repair of injured and diseased lungs. With the advent of modern tissue engineering techniques, whole lung regeneration in the lab using de-cellularised tissue scaffold and stem cells is now becoming reality. In this review, we will highlight the advancement of our understanding in lung regeneration and development of stem cell mediated therapeutic strategies in combating incurable lung diseases.
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Wang W, Ju X, Sun Z, Hou W, Yang L, Zhang R. Overexpression of heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase-2 enhances fibroblast growth factor-mediated chondrocyte growth and differentiation. Int J Mol Med 2015; 36:825-32. [PMID: 26133911 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2015.2272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In our previous study, we reported that heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase‑2 (HS6ST2) plays an important role in the cartilage of patients with osteoarthritis and Kashin-Beck disease and that it regulates aggrecan (Acan) metabolism and the viability of chondrocytes. However, its role in chondrocyte differentiation remains poorly understood. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the role of HS6ST2 in chondrocyte differentiation in vitro using mouse prechondrocytic cells. We found that the overexpression or silencing of HS6ST2 significantly enhanced or abrogated the effects of fibroblast growth factor (FGF)‑2 on chondrocyte growth, respectively. We found that the overexpression of HS6ST2 significantly induced the expression of Acan as well as the amount of total proteoglycans in the prechondrocytic cells in the presence of FGF‑2, whereas the silencing of HS6ST2 caused the opposite effect. Furthermore, the expresssion of FGF‑2‑induced sex‑determining region Y‑type high mobility group box protein 9 (SOX9), a major transcription factor for chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation, was also enhanced or blocked by HS6ST2 overexpression or HS6ST2 knockdown, respectively. Additionally, Wnt/β‑catenin signaling, which inhibited chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation, was suppressed by HS6ST2. Taken together, these data suggest that HS6ST2 plays an important role in regulating chondrocyte growth and differentiation by modulating FGF‑2 signaling, thus indicating that it may be a potential and valuable molecular target for the treatment of skeletal dysplasias, such as dwarfism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Prevention and Health Care, The Third Affiliated Hospital of the Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710068, P.R. China
| | - Xichi Ju
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, P.R. China
| | - Zhengming Sun
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of The Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710068, P.R. China
| | - Weikun Hou
- Department of Joint Surgery, Xi'an Honghui Hospital, The Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710054, P.R. China
| | - Lifang Yang
- Department of Prevention and Health Care, The Third Affiliated Hospital of the Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710068, P.R. China
| | - Rui Zhang
- Laboratory of Orthopedics, Xi'an Honghui Hospital, The Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710054, P.R. China
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Volckaert T, De Langhe S. Lung epithelial stem cells and their niches: Fgf10 takes center stage. FIBROGENESIS & TISSUE REPAIR 2014; 7:8. [PMID: 24891877 PMCID: PMC4041638 DOI: 10.1186/1755-1536-7-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Throughout life adult animals crucially depend on stem cell populations to maintain and repair their tissues to ensure life-long organ function. Stem cells are characterized by their capacity to extensively self-renew and give rise to one or more differentiated cell types. These powerful stem cell properties are key to meet the changing demand for tissue replacement during normal lung homeostasis and regeneration after lung injury. Great strides have been made over the last few years to identify and characterize lung epithelial stem cells as well as their lineage relationships. Unfortunately, knowledge on what regulates the behavior and fate specification of lung epithelial stem cells is still limited, but involves communication with their microenvironment or niche, a local tissue environment that hosts and influences the behaviors or characteristics of stem cells and that comprises other cell types and extracellular matrix. As such, an intimate and dynamic epithelial-mesenchymal cross-talk, which is also essential during lung development, is required for normal homeostasis and to mount an appropriate regenerative response after lung injury. Fibroblast growth factor 10 (Fgf10) signaling in particular seems to be a well-conserved signaling pathway governing epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during lung development as well as between different adult lung epithelial stem cells and their niches. On the other hand, disruption of these reciprocal interactions leads to a dysfunctional epithelial stem cell-niche unit, which may culminate in chronic lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic asthma and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Volckaert
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Cell Biology, National Jewish Health, 1400 Jackson St, Denver, CO 80206, USA ; The Inflammation Research Center, Unit of Molecular Signal Transduction in Inflammation, VIB, Technologiepark 927, 9052 Ghent, Belgium ; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stijn De Langhe
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Cell Biology, National Jewish Health, 1400 Jackson St, Denver, CO 80206, USA ; Department of Cellular and Developmental Biology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, 12605 E 16th Avenue, Aurora CO 80045, USA
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c-Myc regulates proliferation and Fgf10 expression in airway smooth muscle after airway epithelial injury in mouse. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71426. [PMID: 23967208 PMCID: PMC3742735 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During lung development, Fibroblast growth factor 10 (Fgf10), which is expressed in the distal mesenchyme and regulated by Wnt signaling, acts on the distal epithelial progenitors to maintain them and prevent them from differentiating into proximal (airway) epithelial cells. Fgf10-expressing cells in the distal mesenchyme are progenitors for parabronchial smooth muscle cells (PSMCs). After naphthalene, ozone or bleomycin-induced airway epithelial injury, surviving epithelial cells secrete Wnt7b which then activates the PSMC niche to induce Fgf10 expression. This Fgf10 secreted by the niche then acts on a subset of Clara stem cells to break quiescence, induce proliferation and initiate epithelial repair. Here we show that conditional deletion of the Wnt target gene c-Myc from the lung mesenchyme during development does not affect proper epithelial or mesenchymal differentiation. However, in the adult lung we show that after naphthalene-mediated airway epithelial injury c-Myc is important for the activation of the PSMC niche and as such induces proliferation and Fgf10 expression in PSMCs. Our data indicate that conditional deletion of c-Myc from PSMCs inhibits airway epithelial repair, whereas c-Myc ablation from Clara cells has no effect on airway epithelial regeneration. These findings may have important implications for understanding the misregulation of lung repair in asthma and COPD.
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Wang W, Zhong B, Sun J, Cao J, Tian J, Zhong N, Zhao W, Tian L, Xu P, Guo D, Ju X, Ma W, Li M, Hou W, Lu S. Down-regulated HS6ST2 in osteoarthritis and Kashin-Beck disease inhibits cell viability and influences expression of the genes relevant to aggrecan metabolism of human chondrocytes. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2011; 50:2176-86. [DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/ker230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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15
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Conway CD, Price DJ, Pratt T, Mason JO. Analysis of axon guidance defects at the optic chiasm in heparan sulphate sulphotransferase compound mutant mice. J Anat 2011; 219:734-42. [PMID: 21951307 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2011.01432.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
During embryonic development of the visual system, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) project their axons towards the brain, passing through the optic chiasm. Axons are guided on this journey by molecular cues in the environment. The heparan sulphate sulphotransferase (Hst) enzymes Hs2st and Hs6st1 are each known to be required for specific aspects of axon guidance in the developing visual system, as revealed by studies of Hs2st(-/-) and Hs6st1(-/-) mutant embryos. However, it remained possible that these two enzymes have additional, overlapping, functions in RGC axon guidance; but that no effect is manifest in single mutant embryos, because the other enzyme is sufficient to fulfil the shared function. To investigate this possibility, we generated a set of Hs2st;Hs6st1 double mutant embryos that had reduced gene dosage of each of these Hsts, reasoning that any additional phenotypes in these animals would indicate the presence of functional overlap. We first characterised the structure of the mutant Hs6st1 locus, identifying the insertion site of the gene trap vector, to allow us to genotype compound mutants reliably. We found that Hs2st(-/-) ;Hs6st1(-/-) mutants that lack both enzymes died prior to E15.5. As the optic chiasm has not formed by this stage, we were unable to determine the effect of complete loss of Hs2st and Hs6st1 on chiasm formation. However, compound mutant embryos lacking one Hst and heterozygous for the other were viable. We found that RGC axon guidance defects in such compound mutants were no more severe than those found in the single mutant embryos. We also found that expression of the Hs6st1 isoform Hs6st3 overlaps with that of Hs6st1 in the developing visual system, suggesting that some Hs6st activity remains present in this region of Hs6st1(-/-) mutant embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Conway
- Genes and Development Group, Centre for Integrative Physiology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, George Square, Edinburgh, UK
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Heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase 1, a gene involved in extracellular sugar modifications, is mutated in patients with idiopathic hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:11524-9. [PMID: 21700882 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1102284108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal development is the result of a multitude of neural migrations, which require extensive cell-cell communication. These processes are modulated by extracellular matrix components, such as heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides. HS is molecularly complex as a result of nonrandom modifications of the sugar moieties, including sulfations in specific positions. We report here mutations in HS 6-O-sulfotransferase 1 (HS6ST1) in families with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH). IHH manifests as incomplete or absent puberty and infertility as a result of defects in gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron development or function. IHH-associated HS6ST1 mutations display reduced activity in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that HS6ST1 and the complex modifications of extracellular sugars are critical for normal development in humans. Genetic experiments in Caenorhabditis elegans reveal that HS cell-specifically regulates neural branching in vivo in concert with other IHH-associated genes, including kal-1, the FGF receptor, and FGF. These findings are consistent with a model in which KAL1 can act as a modulatory coligand with FGF to activate the FGF receptor in an HS-dependent manner.
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Qu X, Carbe C, Tao C, Powers A, Lawrence R, van Kuppevelt TH, Cardoso WV, Grobe K, Esko JD, Zhang X. Lacrimal gland development and Fgf10-Fgfr2b signaling are controlled by 2-O- and 6-O-sulfated heparan sulfate. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:14435-44. [PMID: 21357686 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.225003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate, an extensively sulfated glycosaminoglycan abundant on cell surface proteoglycans, regulates intercellular signaling through its binding to various growth factors and receptors. In the lacrimal gland, branching morphogenesis depends on the interaction of heparan sulfate with Fgf10-Fgfr2b. To address if lacrimal gland development and FGF signaling depends on 2-O-sulfation of uronic acids and 6-O-sulfation of glucosamine residues, we genetically ablated heparan sulfate 2-O and 6-O sulfotransferases (Hs2st, Hs6st1, and Hs6st2) in developing lacrimal gland. Using a panel of phage display antibodies, we confirmed that these mutations disrupted 2-O and/or 6-O but not N-sulfation of heparan sulfate. The Hs6st mutants exhibited significant lacrimal gland hypoplasia and a strong genetic interaction with Fgf10, demonstrating the importance of heparan sulfate 6-O sulfation in lacrimal gland FGF signaling. Altering Hs2st caused a much less severe phenotype, but the Hs2st;Hs6st double mutants completely abolished lacrimal gland development, suggesting that both 2-O and 6-O sulfation of heparan sulfate contribute to FGF signaling. Combined Hs2st;Hs6st deficiency synergistically disrupted the formation of Fgf10-Fgfr2b-heparan sulfate complex on the cell surface and prevented lacrimal gland induction by Fgf10 in explant cultures. Importantly, the Hs2st;Hs6st double mutants abrogated FGF downstream ERK signaling. Therefore, Fgf10-Fgfr2b signaling during lacrimal gland development is sensitive to the content or arrangement of O-sulfate groups in heparan sulfate. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show that simultaneous deletion of Hs2st and Hs6st exhibits profound FGF signaling defects in mammalian development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuxia Qu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, USA
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Habuchi H, Kimata K. Mice deficient in heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase-1. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2010; 93:79-111. [PMID: 20807642 DOI: 10.1016/s1877-1173(10)93005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate chains are initially synthesized on core proteins as linear polysaccharides composed of glucuronic acid-N-acetylglucosamine repeating units and subjected to marked structural modification by sulfation at various places and epimerization of hexuronic acid residues (C5-epimerase) at the Golgi lumen and further by 6-O-desulfation at the cell surface, which generates their characteristic divergent fine structures. This chapter focuses on the biological and physiological functions of 6-O-sulfation in HS and the characterization of the enzymes catalyzing 6-O-sulfation (HS6ST). HS6STs in mammals such as humans and mice comprise of three isoforms (HS6ST-1, -2, and -3) and one alternatively spliced form of HS6ST-2 (HS6ST-2S). Each of these isoforms has distinct substrate preferences, albeit overlapping each other. These HS6ST isoforms are expressed in a spatiotemporally regulated manner in most organs. HS6ST-1-deficient mice are lethal mostly at later embryonic stages and exhibit abnormal angiogenesis in labyrinthine zone of placenta and aberrant lung morphology similar to pulmonary emphysema. These knockout mice also exhibit retinal axon guidance abnormality at the optic chiasm. Other HS6ST-deficient animals reveal various malformations in muscle development and branching morphology of the caudal vein of zebrafish, in tracheal formation of Drosophila, and in axon guidance of ventral nerve cord interneurons of Caenorhabditis elegans. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts prepared from HS6ST-1/HS6ST-2 double knockout mice did produce HS lacking 6-O-sulfation and responded differently to various FGFs dependent signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Habuchi
- Research Complex for the Medicine Frontiers, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
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19
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Haupt LM, Murali S, Mun FK, Teplyuk N, Mei LF, Stein GS, van Wijnen AJ, Nurcombe V, Cool SM. The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) glypican-3 mediates commitment of MC3T3-E1 cells toward osteogenesis. J Cell Physiol 2009; 220:780-91. [PMID: 19479939 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) sugar chains attached to core proteoglycans (PGs) termed HSPGs mediate an extensive range of cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) and growth factor interactions based upon their sulfation patterns. When compared with non-osteogenic (maintenance media) culture conditions, under established osteogenic culture conditions, MC3T3-E1 cells characteristically increase their osteogenic gene expression profile and switch their dominant fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) from FGFR1 (0.5-fold decrease) to FGFR3 (1.5-fold increase). The change in FGFR expression profile of the osteogenic-committed cultures was reflected by their inability to sustain an FGF-2 stimulus, but respond to BMP-2 at day 14 of culture. The osteogenic cultures decreased their chondroitin and dermatan sulfate PGs (biglycan, decorin, and versican), but increased levels of the HS core protein gene expression, in particular glypican-3. Commitment and progress through osteogenesis is accompanied by changes in FGFR expression, decreased GAG initiation but increased N- and O-sulfation and reduced remodeling of the ECM (decreased heparanase expression) resulting in the production of homogenous (21 kDa) HS chain. With the HSPG glypican-3 expression strongly upregulated in these processes, siRNA was used to knockdown this gene to examine the effect on osteogenic commitment. Reduced glypican-3 abrogated the expression of Runx2, and thus differentiation. The reintroduction of this HSPG into Runx2-null cells allowed osteogenesis to proceed. These results demonstrate the dependence of osteogenesis on specific HS chains, in particular those associated with glypican-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larisa M Haupt
- Stem Cells and Tissue Repair Group, Institute of Medical Biology, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), Biopolis 138648, Singapore
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20
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Gribar SC, Sodhi CP, Richardson WM, Anand RJ, Gittes GK, Branca MF, Jakub A, Shi XH, Shah S, Ozolek JA, Hackam DJ. Reciprocal expression and signaling of TLR4 and TLR9 in the pathogenesis and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:636-46. [PMID: 19109197 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.1.636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a common and often fatal inflammatory disorder affecting preterm infants that develops upon interaction of indigenous bacteria with the premature intestine. We now demonstrate that the developing mouse intestine shows reciprocal patterns of expression of TLR4 and TLR9, the receptor for bacterial DNA (CpG-DNA). Using a novel ultrasound-guided in utero injection system, we administered LPS directly into the stomachs of early and late gestation fetuses to induce TLR4 signaling and demonstrated that TLR4-mediated signaling within the developing intestine follows its expression pattern. Murine and human NEC were associated with increased intestinal TLR4 and decreased TLR9 expression, suggesting that reciprocal TLR4 and TLR9 signaling may occur in the pathogenesis of NEC. Enteral administration of adenovirus expressing mutant TLR4 to neonatal mice reduced the severity of NEC and increased TLR9 expression within the intestine. Activation of TLR9 with CpG-DNA inhibited LPS-mediated TLR4 signaling in enterocytes in a mechanism dependent upon the inhibitory molecule IRAK-M. Strikingly, TLR9 activation with CpG-DNA significantly reduced NEC severity, whereas TLR9-deficient mice exhibited increased NEC severity. Thus, the reciprocal nature of TLR4 and TLR9 signaling within the neonatal intestine plays a role in the development of NEC and provides novel therapeutic approaches to this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven C Gribar
- Department of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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Sato M, Amemiya K, Hayakawa S, Munakata H. Subcellular localization of human heparanase and its alternative splice variant in COS-7 cells. Cell Biochem Funct 2008; 26:676-83. [PMID: 18646256 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.1492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Heparanase, the enzyme that degrades heparan sulfate, has been implicated to play important and characteristic roles in organogenesis, tissue organization, cell migration, and tumor metastasis. Clarification of its expression, its intracellular sorting, and its secretion is, therefore, of much importance to understand its role in cell biology. In addition to the 1.7 Kb transcript previously reported, we detected a 1.5 Kb transcript of human heparanase by RT-PCR. The smaller transcript was shown to be an alternatively spliced variant lacking exon 5, which contains the essential glutamic acid residue required for enzyme activity. When expressed in COS-7 cells this variant did not show any heparanase activity. Full-length heparanase and the exon 5-deleted splice variant were expressed in COS-7 cells and examined by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Both proteins co-localized with calnexin, a marker protein for the endoplasmic reticulum, and they co-immunoprecipitated with calnexin. Both proteins were postulated to be precursors based upon the results of SDS-PAGE analyses. Treatment with endoglycosidases revealed that all potential N-glycosylation sites in the proteins were glycosylated. Tunicamycin treatment of transfected COS-7 cells inhibited N-glycosylation but did not change the subcellular localization. These results indicate that overexpressed heparanase and its splice variant localize to the endoplasmic reticulum independent of glycosylation in COS-7 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayumi Sato
- Department of Biochemistry, Kinki University School of Medicine, Osaka-Sayama, Japan
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22
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Izvolsky KI, Lu J, Martin G, Albrecht KH, Cardoso WV. Systemic inactivation of Hs6st1 in mice is associated with late postnatal mortality without major defects in organogenesis. Genesis 2008; 46:8-18. [PMID: 18196599 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.20355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans modulate the biological activity of a number of growth factors in development, homeostasis, and cancer. Specific modifications of HS chains by HS biosynthetic enzymes have been implicated in growth factor signaling in multiple aspects of organogenesis. Although the role of HS 6-O-sulfotransferases has been described in processes such as trachea formation in Drosophila and vasculogenesis in zebrafish, little is known about how HS 6-O-sulfotransferases (Hs6st1-3 in mice) influence mouse development. To address this issue, we generated a conditionally mutant Hs6st1 mouse line and then generated mice with systemic inactivation of Hs6st1. Hs6st1-null pups were viable and grossly normal at birth. The lack of obvious abnormalities in lung, liver, and kidney, which express high levels of Hs6st1 during development, suggests that at least during embryonic life, the loss of Hs6st1 function may be compensated for by mechanisms involving other HS modifying enzymes. During early adulthood, however, Hs6st1-null mice failed to thrive and exhibited growth retardation, body weight loss, enlargement of airspaces in the lung and, in some cases, lethality. Our results suggest a potentially critical role for HS 6-O sulfation by Hs6st1 in postnatal processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin I Izvolsky
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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23
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Sugaya N, Habuchi H, Nagai N, Ashikari-Hada S, Kimata K. 6-O-sulfation of heparan sulfate differentially regulates various fibroblast growth factor-dependent signalings in culture. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:10366-76. [PMID: 18281280 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m705948200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) interacts with diverse heparin-binding growth factors and thereby regulates their bioactivities. These interactions depend on the structures characterized by the sulfation pattern and isomer of uronic acid residues. One of the biosynthetic modifications of HS, namely 6-O-sulfation, is catalyzed by three isoforms of HS6-O-sulfotransferase. We generated HS6ST-1- and/or HS6ST-2-deficient mice (6ST1-KO, 6ST2-KO, and double knock-out (dKO)) that exhibited different phenotypes. We examined the effects of HS 6-O-sulfation in heparin-binding growth factor signaling using fibroblasts derived from these mutant mice. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) prepared from E14.5 dKO mice produced HS with little 6-O-sulfate, whereas 2-O-sulfation in HS from dKO-MEF (dKO-HS) was increased by 1.9-fold. HS6-O-sulfotransferase activity in the dKO-MEF was hardly detected, and HS2-O-sulfotransferase activity was 1.5-fold higher than that in wild type (WT)-MEFs. The response of dKO-MEFs to fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) was distinct from that of WT-MEFs; in dKO-MEFs, FGF-4- and FGF-2-dependent signalings were reduced to approximately 30 and 60% of WT-MEFs, respectively, and FGF-1-dependent signaling was moderately reduced compared with that of WT-MEFs but only at the lower FGF-1 concentrations. Analysis with a surface plasmon resonance biosensor demonstrated that the apparent affinity of dKO-HS for FGF-4 was markedly reduced and was also reduced for FGF-1. In contrast, the affinity of dKO-HS for FGF-2 was 2.5-fold higher than that of HS from WT-MEFs. Thus, 6-O-sulfate in HS may regulate the signalings of some of HB-GFs, including FGFs, by inducing different interactions between ligands and their receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Sugaya
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
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24
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The role of GlcNAc in formation and function of extracellular matrices. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 149:215-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2007.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2007] [Revised: 10/17/2007] [Accepted: 10/17/2007] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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25
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Manton KJ, Leong DFM, Cool SM, Nurcombe V. Disruption of Heparan and Chondroitin Sulfate Signaling Enhances Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Osteogenic Differentiation via Bone Morphogenetic Protein Signaling Pathways. Stem Cells 2007; 25:2845-54. [PMID: 17702986 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2007-0065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycans have been implicated in a multitude of biological processes, including embryonic implantation, tissue morphogenesis, wound repair, and neovascularization through their ability to regulate growth factor activity and morphogenic gradients. However, the direct role of the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) sugar-side chains in the control of human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC) differentiation into the osteoblast lineage is poorly understood. Here, we show that the abundant cell surface GAGs, HS and CS, are secreted in proteoglycan complexes that directly regulate the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-mediated differentiation of hMSCs into osteoblasts. Enzymatic depletion of the HS and CS chains by heparinase and chondroitinase treatment decreased HS and CS expression but did not alter the expression of the HS core proteins perlecan and syndecan. When digested separately, depletion of HS and CS chains did not effect hMSC proliferation but rather increased BMP bioactivity through SMAD1/5/8 intracellular signaling at the same time as increasing canonical Wnt signaling through LEF1 activation. Long-term culturing of cells in HS- and CS-degrading enzymes also increased bone nodule formation, calcium accumulation, and the expression of such osteoblast markers as alkaline phosphatase, RUNX2, and osteocalcin. Thus, the enzymatic disruption of HS and CS chains on cell surface proteoglycans alters BMP and Wnt activity so as to enhance the lineage commitment and osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs.
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Metzger DE, Xu Y, Shannon JM. Elf5 is an epithelium-specific, fibroblast growth factor-sensitive transcription factor in the embryonic lung. Dev Dyn 2007; 236:1175-92. [PMID: 17394208 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling has been shown to be essential for many aspects of normal lung development. To determine epithelial targets of FGF signaling, we cultured embryonic day (E) 11.5 mouse lungs for 24 hr in the presence or absence of the FGF receptor antagonist SU5402, which inhibited branching morphogenesis. Affymetrix gene chip analysis of treated and control epithelia identified several genes regulated by FGF signaling, including Elf5, a member of the Epithelial-specific Ets family of transcription factors. SU5402 reduced Elf5 expression in mesenchyme-free cultures of E12.5 epithelium, demonstrating that the inhibition was direct. In situ hybridization revealed that Elf5 had a dynamic pattern of expression during lung development. We found that expression of Elf5 was induced by FGF7 and FGF10, ligands that primarily bind FGFR2b. To further define the pathways by which FGFs activate Elf5 expression, we cultured E11.5 lung tips in the presence of compounds to inhibit FGF receptors (SU5402), PI3-Kinase/Akt-mediated signaling (LY294002), and MAP Kinase/Erk-mediated signaling (U0126). We found that SU5402 and LY294002 significantly reduced Elf5 expression, whereas U0126 had no effect. LY294002 also reduced Elf5 expression in cultures of purified epithelium. Finally, pAkt was coexpressed with Elf5 in the proximal epithelial airways of E17.5 lungs. These results demonstrate that Elf5 is an FGF-sensitive transcription factor in the lung with a dynamic pattern of expression and that FGF regulation of Elf5 by means of FGFR2b occurs through the PI3-Kinase/Akt pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Metzger
- Division of Pulmonary Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229-3039, USA.
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27
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Kurup S, Wijnhoven TJM, Jenniskens GJ, Kimata K, Habuchi H, Li JP, Lindahl U, van Kuppevelt TH, Spillmann D. Characterization of anti-heparan sulfate phage display antibodies AO4B08 and HS4E4. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:21032-42. [PMID: 17517889 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m702073200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfates (HS) are linear carbohydrate chains, covalently attached to proteins, that occur on essentially all cell surfaces and in extracellular matrices. HS chains show extensive structural heterogeneity and are functionally important during embryogenesis and in homeostasis due to their interactions with various proteins. Phage display antibodies have been developed to probe HS structures, assess the availability of protein-binding sites, and monitor structural changes during development and disease. Here we have characterized two such antibodies, AO4B08 and HS4E4, previously noted for partly differential tissue staining. AO4B08 recognized both HS and heparin, and was found to interact with an ubiquitouys, N-, 2-O-, and 6-O-sulfated saccharide motif, including an internal 2-O-sulfate group. HS4E4 turned out to preferentially recognize low-sulfated HS motifs containing iduronic acid, and N-sulfated as well as N-acetylated glucosamine residues. Contrary to AO4B08, HS4E4 did not bind highly O-sulfated structures such as found in heparin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindhulakshmi Kurup
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, SE-751 23 Sweden
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Kobayashi T, Habuchi H, Tamura K, Ide H, Kimata K. Essential role of heparan sulfate 2-O-sulfotransferase in chick limb bud patterning and development. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:19589-97. [PMID: 17493930 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m610707200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions of heparan sulfate (HS) with heparin-binding growth factors, such as fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), depend greatly on the chain structures. O-Sulfations at various positions on the chain are major factors determining HS structure; therefore, O-sulfation patterns may play a crucial role in controlling the developmental and morphogenetic processes of various tissues and organs by spatiotemporally regulating the activities of heparin-binding growth factors. In a previous study, we found that HS-2-O-sulfotransferase is strongly expressed throughout the mesoderm of chick limb buds during the early stages of development. Here we show that inhibition of HS-2-O-sulfotransferase in the prospective limb region by small inhibitory RNA resulted in the truncation of limb buds and reduced Fgf-8 expression in the apical ectodermal ridge. The treatment also reduced Fgf-10 expression in the mesenchyme. Moreover 2-O-sulfated HS, normally abundant in the basement membranes and mesoderm under ectoderm in limb buds, was significantly reduced in the treated buds. Phosphorylation levels of ERK and Akt were up-regulated in such truncated buds. Thus, we have shown for the first time that 2-O-sulfation of HS is essential for the FGF signaling required for limb bud development and outgrowth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Kobayashi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
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Habuchi H, Nagai N, Sugaya N, Atsumi F, Stevens RL, Kimata K. Mice deficient in heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase-1 exhibit defective heparan sulfate biosynthesis, abnormal placentation, and late embryonic lethality. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:15578-88. [PMID: 17405882 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m607434200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) plays critical roles in a variety of developmental, physiological, and pathogenic processes due to its ability to interact in a structure-dependent manner with numerous growth factors that participate in cellular signaling. The divergent structures of HS glycosaminoglycans are the result of the coordinate actions of several N- and O-sulfotransferases, C5-epimerase, and 6-O-endosulfatases. We have shown that 6-O-sulfation of the glucosamine residues in HS are catalyzed by the sulfotransferases HS6ST-1, -2, and -3. To determine the biological and physiological importance of HS6ST-1, we now describe the creation of transgenic mice that lack this sulfotransferase. Most of our HS6ST-1-null mice died between embryonic day 15.5 and the perinatal stage, and those mice that survived were considerably smaller than their wild-type littermates. Some of these HS6ST-1-null mice exhibited development abnormalities, and histochemical and molecular analyses of these mice revealed an approximately 50% reduction in the number of fetal microvessels in the labyrinthine zone of the placenta relative to that in the wild-type mice. Because we observed a modest reduction in VEGF-A mRNA and protein in the tissues of HS6ST-1-null mice, an HS-dependent defect in cytokine signaling probably contributes to increased embryonic lethality and decreased growth. Biochemical studies of the HS chains isolated from various organs of our HS6ST-1-null mice revealed a marked reduction of GlcNAc(6SO(4)) and HexA-GlcNSO(3)(6SO(4)) levels and a reduced ability to bind Wnt2. Thus, despite the presence of three closely related 6-O-sulfotransferase genes in the mouse genome, HS6ST-1 is the primary one used in HS biosynthesis in most tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Habuchi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine and Laboratory Animal Research Center, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
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Zertal-Zidani S, Bounacer A, Scharfmann R. Regulation of pancreatic endocrine cell differentiation by sulphated proteoglycans. Diabetologia 2007; 50:585-95. [PMID: 17221210 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-006-0571-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2006] [Accepted: 11/03/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Epithelium-mesenchyme interactions play a major role in pancreas development. Recently, we demonstrated that embryonic pancreatic mesenchyme enhanced progenitor cell proliferation but inhibited endocrine cell differentiation. Here, we investigated the role played by sulphated proteoglycans, which are known to be essential to embryonic development, in this inhibitory effect. MATERIALS AND METHODS We first determined the expression of the genes encoding glypicans, syndecans and the main glycosaminoglycan chain-modifying enzymes in immature embryonic day (E) 13.5 and more differentiated E17.5 rat pancreases. Next, using an in vitro model of pancreas development, we blocked the action of endogenous sulphated proteoglycans by treating embryonic pancreases in culture with chlorate, an inhibitor of proteoglycan sulphation, and examined the effects on pancreatic endocrine cell differentiation. RESULTS We first showed that expression of the genes encoding glypicans 1, 2, 3 and 5 and heparan sulphate 2-sulfotransferase decreased between E13.5 and E17.5. We next found that alteration of proteoglycan action by chlorate blocked the inhibitory effect of the mesenchyme on endocrine differentiation. Chlorate-treated pancreases exhibited a dramatic increase in beta cell number in a dose-dependent manner (169-and 375-fold increase with 30 mmol/l and 40 mmol/l chlorate, respectively) and in alpha cell development. Insulin-positive cells that developed in the presence of chlorate exhibited a phenotype of mature cells with regard to the expression of the following genes: pancreatic and duodenal homeobox gene 1 (Pdx1), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 (Pcsk1; previously known as pro-hormone convertase 1/3), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 2 (Pcsk2; previously known as pro-hormone convertase 2) and solute carrier family 2 (facilitated glucose transporter), member 2 (Slc2a1; previously known as glucose transporter 2). Finally, we showed that chlorate activated endocrine cell development by inducing neurogenin 3 (Neurog3) expression in early endocrine progenitor cells. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION We demonstrated that sulphated proteoglycans control pancreatic endocrine cell differentiation. Understanding the mechanism by which sulphated proteoglycans affect beta cell development could be useful in the generation of beta cells from embryonic stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Zertal-Zidani
- University Paris-Descartes, Faculty of Medicine, INSERM, Necker Hospital, EMI 363, 75730, Paris cedex 15, France.
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Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs), molecules in which glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are covalently linked to a protein core, are components of the extracellular matrix of all multicellular organisms. Sugar moieties in GAGs are often extensively modified, which make these molecules enormously complex. We discuss here the role of PGs during animal development, emphasizing the in vivo significance of sugar modifications. We explore a model in which the modification patterns of GAG chains may provide a specific code that contributes to the correct development of a multicellular organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes E Bülow
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA.
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Cadwallader AB, Yost HJ. Combinatorial expression patterns of heparan sulfate sulfotransferases in zebrafish: II. The 6-O-sulfotransferase family. Dev Dyn 2006; 235:3432-7. [PMID: 17075883 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is an unbranched chain of repetitive disaccharides, which specifically binds ligands when attached to the cell surface or secreted extracellularly. HS chains contain sulfated domains termed the HS fine structure, which gives HS specific binding affinities for extracellular ligands. HS 6-O-sulfotransferases (6-OST) catalyze the transfer of sulfate groups to the 6-O position of glucosamine residues of HS. We report here the characterization and developmental expression analysis of the 6-OST gene family in the zebrafish. The zebrafish 6-OST gene family consists of four conserved vertebrate orthologues, including a gene duplication specific to zebrafish. We examined the mRNA expression patterns in several tissues/organs throughout early zebrafish development, including early cleavage stages, eyes, somites, brain, internal organ primordial, and pectoral fin development. Members of the 6-OST gene family have spatially and temporally distinct restricted expression, suggesting in vivo functional differences exist between members of this family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam B Cadwallader
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, Center for Children, Department of Oncological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
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Pratt T, Conway CD, Tian NMML, Price DJ, Mason JO. Heparan sulphation patterns generated by specific heparan sulfotransferase enzymes direct distinct aspects of retinal axon guidance at the optic chiasm. J Neurosci 2006; 26:6911-23. [PMID: 16807321 PMCID: PMC6673919 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0505-06.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons from each eye execute a series of maneuvers as they converge on the ventral surface of the brain at the optic chiasm for sorting into the optic tracts. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are extracellular glycoproteins involved in cell-surface interactions. HSPGs exhibit massive structural diversity, conferred partly by extensive post-translational modification including differential sulfation. Here we examine the roles of HSPG sulfation in RGC axon guidance at the chiasm. We identified different axon navigation phenotypes in two heparan sulfate sulfotransferase (Hst) mutant embryos, Hs2st-/- and Hs6st1-/-, each lacking an enzyme that catalyzes a particular HSPG modification. Hs2st-/- embryos display axon disorganization at the chiasm. Hs6st1-/- embryos exhibit prolific inter-retinal innervation. We show that RGCs express Hs2st and Hs6st1 and that navigation errors made by their axons coincide with regions of high Hs2st and/or Hs6st1 expression at the chiasm. Slit proteins are expressed at particular locations in the retina and around the chiasm and are normally deployed to prevent axons entering inappropriate territories. We show that Hs2st and/or Hs6st1 expression coincides with Slit expression domains at locations where RGC axons make navigation errors in Hs2st-/- and Hs6st1-/- mutants and that Hs6st1-/- RGC axons are less sensitive to Slit2 repulsion than their wild-type counterparts in vitro. We suggest that (1) Hs2st and Hs6st1 are each deployed to generate distinct patterns of heparan sulfation on RGCs and at the optic chiasm and (2) this differential sulfation directs retinal axons through the chiasm, at least in part by modulating the response of the navigating growth cone to Slit proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Pratt
- Genes and Development Group, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, United Kingdom.
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Gomes RR, Van Kuppevelt TH, Farach-Carson MC, Carson DD. Spatiotemporal distribution of heparan sulfate epitopes during murine cartilage growth plate development. Histochem Cell Biol 2006; 126:713-22. [PMID: 16835755 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-006-0203-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/16/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are abundant in the pericellular matrix of both developing and mature cartilage. Increasing evidence suggests the action of numerous chondroregulatory molecules depends on HSPGs. In addition to specific functions attributed to their core protein, the complexity of heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis provides extraordinary structural and functional heterogeneity. Understanding the interactions of chondroregulatory molecules with HSPGs and their subsequent outcomes has been limited by the absence of a detailed analysis of HS species in cartilage. In this study, we characterize the distribution and variety of HS species in developing cartilage of normal mice. Cryo-sections of femur and tibia from normal mouse embryos were evaluated using immunostaining techniques. A panel of unique phage display antibodies specific to particular HS species were employed and visualized with secondary antibodies conjugated to Alexa-fluor dyes. Confocal microscopy demonstrates that HS species are dynamic structures within developing growth plate cartilage and the perichondrium. GlcNS6S-IdoUA2S-GlcNS6S species are down regulated and localization of GlcNS6S-IdoUA-GlcNS6S species within the hypertrophic zone of the growth plate is lost during normal development. Regional differences in HS structures are present within developing growth plates, implying that interactions with and responses to HS-binding proteins also may display regional specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald R Gomes
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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Do AT, Smeds E, Spillmann D, Kusche-Gullberg M. Overexpression of heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferases in human embryonic kidney 293 cells results in increased N-acetylglucosaminyl 6-O-sulfation. J Biol Chem 2005; 281:5348-56. [PMID: 16326709 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m509584200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) interacts with a variety of proteins and thus mediates numerous complex biological processes. These interactions critically depend on the patterns of O-sulfate groups within the HS chains that determine binding sites for proteins. In particular the distribution of 6-O-sulfated glucosamine residues influences binding and activity of HS-dependent signaling molecules. The protein binding domains of HS show large structural variability, potentially because of differential expression patterns of HS biosynthetic enzymes along with differences in substrate specificity. To investigate whether different isoforms of HS glucosaminyl 6-O-sulfotransferase (6-OST) give rise to differently sulfated domains, we have introduced mouse 6-OST1, 6-OST2, and 6-OST3 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and compared the effects of overexpression on HS structure. High expression of any one of the 6-OST enzymes resulted in appreciably increased 6-O-sulfation of N-sulfated as well as N-acetylated glucosamine units. The increased 6-O-sulfation was accompanied by a decrease in nonsulfated as well as in iduronic acid 2-O-sulfated disaccharide structures. Furthermore, overexpression led to an altered HS domain structure, the most striking effect was the formation of extended 6-O-sulfated predominantly N-acetylated HS domains. Although the effect was most noticeable in 6-OST3-expressing cells, these results were largely independent of the particular 6-OST isoform expressed and mainly influenced by the level of overexpression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh-Tri Do
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Biomedical Center, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Rhiner C, Gysi S, Fröhli E, Hengartner MO, Hajnal A. Syndecan regulates cell migration and axon guidance in C. elegans. Development 2005; 132:4621-33. [PMID: 16176946 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During nervous system development, axons that grow out simultaneously in the same extracellular environment are often sorted to different target destinations. As there is only a restricted set of guidance cues known, regulatory mechanisms are likely to play a crucial role in controlling cell migration and axonal pathfinding. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) carry long chains of differentially modified sugar residues that have been proposed to encode specific information for nervous system development. Here, we show that the cell surface proteoglycan syndecan SDN-1 functions autonomously in neurons to control the neural migration and guidance choices of outgrowing axons. Epistasis analysis suggests that heparan sulfate (HS) attached to SDN-1 can regulate guidance signaling by the Slit/Robo pathway. Furthermore, SDN-1 acts in parallel with other HSPG core proteins whose HS side chains are modified by the C5-epimerase HSE-5, and/or the 2O-sulfotransferase HST-2, depending on the cellular context. Taken together, our experiments show that distinct HS modification patterns on SDN-1 are involved in regulating axon guidance and cell migration in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa Rhiner
- Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
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