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Rajan A, Fame RM. Brain development and bioenergetic changes. Neurobiol Dis 2024; 199:106550. [PMID: 38849103 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Bioenergetics describe the biochemical processes responsible for energy supply in organisms. When these changes become dysregulated in brain development, multiple neurodevelopmental diseases can occur, implicating bioenergetics as key regulators of neural development. Historically, the discovery of disease processes affecting individual stages of brain development has revealed critical roles that bioenergetics play in generating the nervous system. Bioenergetic-dependent neurodevelopmental disorders include neural tube closure defects, microcephaly, intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, epilepsy, mTORopathies, and oncogenic processes. Developmental timing and cell-type specificity of these changes determine the long-term effects of bioenergetic disease mechanisms on brain form and function. Here, we discuss key metabolic regulators of neural progenitor specification, neuronal differentiation (neurogenesis), and gliogenesis. In general, transitions between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation are regulated in early brain development and in oncogenesis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial maturity play key roles later in differentiation. We also discuss how bioenergetics interface with the developmental regulation of other key neural elements, including the cerebrospinal fluid brain environment. While questions remain about the interplay between bioenergetics and brain development, this review integrates the current state of known key intersections between these processes in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Rajan
- Developmental Biology Graduate Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ryann M Fame
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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2
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White M, Arif‐Pardy J, Van Mieghem T, Connor KL. Fetal spina bifida associates with dysregulation in nutrient-sensitive placental gene networks: Findings from a matched case-control study. Clin Transl Sci 2024; 17:e13710. [PMID: 38226444 PMCID: PMC10804907 DOI: 10.1111/cts.13710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
To improve outcomes in fetuses with spina bifida (SB), better understanding is needed of the molecular drivers of SB and its comorbidities. Pregnant people carrying a fetus with isolated SB (cases; n = 12) or a fetus with no congenital anomalies (controls; n = 21) were recruited at Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Clinical data and placental samples were collected. Placental transcriptome was sequenced (Clariom D microarray) and a nutrient-focused gene expression analysis pipeline was applied to determine whether fetal SB associates with placental dysfunction. Of the 391 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in cases, 11% (n = 42) had at least one nutrient cofactor, including B vitamins (n = 7 genes), iron/heme (n = 6), and zinc (n = 11). Cases had dysregulation in genes not previously known to associate with SB, and in placental genes that have known links to SB but have not been previously identified in the placenta. Cases also had downregulated nutrient transport and upregulated branching angiogenesis and immune/inflammatory processes. Five nutrient-dependent transcription regulators, collectively predicted to target 46% of DEGs in cases, were identified and were most commonly dependent on B vitamins (n = 3) and zinc (n = 2). Placental gene expression changes were most acute in cases with poor growth. Placentae from fetuses with SB have dysregulation in several gene networks, including those that are sensitive to multiple micronutrients beyond the well-known folic acid. An improved understanding of placental phenotype in fetuses with SB may help identify novel mechanisms associated with comorbidities in fetuses with SB, and reveal new targets to improve fetal outcomes in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina White
- Health SciencesCarleton UniversityOttawaOntarioCanada
| | | | - Tim Van Mieghem
- Department of Obstetrics and GynaecologyMount Sinai HospitalTorontoOntarioCanada
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Edri T, Cohen D, Shabtai Y, Fainsod A. Alcohol induces neural tube defects by reducing retinoic acid signaling and promoting neural plate expansion. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1282273. [PMID: 38116205 PMCID: PMC10728305 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1282273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Neural tube defects (NTDs) are among the most debilitating and common developmental defects in humans. The induction of NTDs has been attributed to abnormal folic acid (vitamin B9) metabolism, Wnt and BMP signaling, excess retinoic acid (RA), dietary components, environmental factors, and many others. In the present study we show that reduced RA signaling, including alcohol exposure, induces NTDs. Methods: Xenopus embryos were exposed to pharmacological RA biosynthesis inhibitors to study the induction of NTDs. Embryos were treated with DEAB, citral, or ethanol, all of which inhibit the biosynthesis of RA, or injected to overexpress Cyp26a1 to reduce RA. NTD induction was studied using neural plate and notochord markers together with morphological analysis. Expression of the neuroectodermal regulatory network and cell proliferation were analyzed to understand the morphological malformations of the neural plate. Results: Reducing RA signaling levels using retinaldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitors (ethanol, DEAB, and citral) or Cyp26a1-driven degradation efficiently induce NTDs. These NTDs can be rescued by providing precursors of RA. We mapped this RA requirement to early gastrula stages during the induction of neural plate precursors. This reduced RA signaling results in abnormal expression of neural network genes, including the neural plate stem cell maintenance genes, geminin, and foxd4l1.1. This abnormal expression of neural network genes results in increased proliferation of neural precursors giving rise to an expanded neural plate. Conclusion: We show that RA signaling is required for neural tube closure during embryogenesis. RA signaling plays a very early role in the regulation of proliferation and differentiation of the neural plate soon after the induction of neural progenitors during gastrulation. RA signaling disruption leads to the induction of NTDs through the mis regulation of the early neuroectodermal network, leading to increased proliferation resulting in the expansion of the neural plate. Ethanol exposure induces NTDs through this mechanism involving reduced RA levels.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Abraham Fainsod
- Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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Keuls RA, Finnell RH, Parchem RJ. Maternal metabolism influences neural tube closure. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2023; 34:539-553. [PMID: 37468429 PMCID: PMC10529122 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2023.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Changes in maternal nutrient availability due to diet or disease significantly increase the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs). Because the incidence of metabolic disease continues to rise, it is urgent that we better understand how altered maternal nutrient levels can influence embryonic neural tube development. Furthermore, primary neurulation occurs before placental function during a period of histiotrophic nutrient exchange. In this review we detail how maternal metabolites are transported by the yolk sac to the developing embryo. We discuss recent advances in understanding how altered maternal levels of essential nutrients disrupt development of the neuroepithelium, and identify points of intersection between metabolic pathways that are crucial for NTD prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Keuls
- Development, Disease Models, and Therapeutics Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine. Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Richard H Finnell
- Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Center for Precision Environmental Health, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Ronald J Parchem
- Development, Disease Models, and Therapeutics Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine. Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Huang W, Fu J, Yuan Z, Gu H. Impact of prenatal exposure to metallic elements on neural tube defects: Insights from human investigations. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 255:114815. [PMID: 36948008 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Metallic elements play a pivotal role in maternal and fetal health. Metals can cross the placental barrier and be absorbed by fetuses, where they may affect closure of the neural tube during embryonic development. Neural tube defects (NTDs), which result from aberrant closure of the neural tube three to four weeks post-conception, have a multifactorial and complex etiology that combines genetic variants and environmental exposure. Recent advances in population-level association studies have investigated the link between maternal environmental exposure and NTDs, particularly the influence of metals on the incidence of NTDs. Herein, we present a broad and qualitative review of current literature on the association between maternal and prenatal metal exposure via the maternal peripheral blood, amniotic fluid, placenta, umbilical cord, and maternal hair, and the risk of developing NTDs. Specifically, we identify the various aggravating or attenuating effects of metallic exposure on the risk of NTD formation. This review provides novel insights into the association between environmental metals and NTDs and has important applications for NTD prevention and mitigating environmental exposure to metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanqi Huang
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jialin Fu
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhengwei Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, China.
| | - Hui Gu
- Key Laboratory of Health Ministry for Congenital Malformation, Shengjing Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, China.
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White M, Arif-Pardy J, Connor KL. Identification of novel nutrient-sensitive gene regulatory networks in amniocytes from fetuses with spina bifida. Reprod Toxicol 2023; 116:108333. [PMID: 36584796 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2022.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Neural tube defects (NTDs) remain among the most common congenital anomalies. Contributing risk factors include genetics and nutrient deficiencies, however, a comprehensive assessment of nutrient-gene interactions in NTDs is lacking. We applied a nutrient-focused gene expression analysis pipeline to identify nutrient-sensitive gene regulatory networks in amniocyte gene expression data (GSE4182) from fetuses with NTDs (cases; n = 3) and fetuses with no congenital anomalies (controls; n = 5). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened for having nutrient cofactors. Nutrient-dependent transcriptional regulators (TRs) that regulated DEGs, and nutrient-sensitive miRNAs with a previous link to NTDs, were identified. Of the 880 DEGs in cases, 10% had at least one nutrient cofactor. DEG regulatory network analysis revealed that 39% and 52% of DEGs in cases were regulated by 22 nutrient-sensitive miRNAs and 10 nutrient-dependent TRs, respectively. Zinc- and B vitamin-dependent gene regulatory networks (Zinc: 10 TRs targeting 50.6% of DEGs; B vitamins: 4 TRs targeting 37.7% of DEGs, 9 miRNAs targeting 17.6% of DEGs) were dysregulated in cases. We identified novel, nutrient-sensitive gene regulatory networks not previously linked to NTDs, which may indicate new targets to explore for NTD prevention or to optimise fetal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina White
- Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Dr, Ottawa K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
| | - Jayden Arif-Pardy
- Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Dr, Ottawa K1S 5B6, ON, Canada
| | - Kristin L Connor
- Health Sciences, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Dr, Ottawa K1S 5B6, ON, Canada.
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Geng S, Paul F, Kowalczyk I, Raimundo S, Sporbert A, Mamo TM, Hammes A. Balancing WNT signalling in early forebrain development: The role of LRP4 as a modulator of LRP6 function. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1173688. [PMID: 37091972 PMCID: PMC10119419 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1173688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The specification of the forebrain relies on the precise regulation of WNT/ß-catenin signalling to support neuronal progenitor cell expansion, patterning, and morphogenesis. Imbalances in WNT signalling activity in the early neuroepithelium lead to congenital disorders, such as neural tube defects (NTDs). LDL receptor-related protein (LRP) family members, including the well-studied receptors LRP5 and LRP6, play critical roles in modulating WNT signalling capacity through tightly regulated interactions with their co-receptor Frizzled, WNT ligands, inhibitors and intracellular WNT pathway components. However, little is known about the function of LRP4 as a potential modulator of WNT signalling in the central nervous system. In this study, we investigated the role of LRP4 in the regulation of WNT signalling during early mouse forebrain development. Our results demonstrate that LRP4 can modulate LRP5- and LRP6-mediated WNT signalling in the developing forebrain prior to the onset of neurogenesis at embryonic stage 9.5 and is therefore essential for accurate neural tube morphogenesis. Specifically, LRP4 functions as a genetic modifier for impaired mitotic activity and forebrain hypoplasia, but not for NTDs in LRP6-deficient mutants. In vivo and in vitro data provide evidence that LRP4 is a key player in fine-tuning WNT signalling capacity and mitotic activity of mouse neuronal progenitors and of human retinal pigment epithelial (hTERT RPE-1) cells. Our data demonstrate the crucial roles of LRP4 and LRP6 in regulating WNT signalling and forebrain development and highlight the need to consider the interaction between different signalling pathways to understand the underlying mechanisms of disease. The findings have significant implications for our mechanistic understanding of how LRPs participate in controlling WNT signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Geng
- Neuroscience, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Fabian Paul
- Neuroscience, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Izabela Kowalczyk
- Neuroscience, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sandra Raimundo
- Advanced Light Microscopy Technology Platform, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Anje Sporbert
- Advanced Light Microscopy Technology Platform, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Tamrat Meshka Mamo
- Neuroscience, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Tamrat Meshka Mamo, ; Annette Hammes,
| | - Annette Hammes
- Neuroscience, Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Tamrat Meshka Mamo, ; Annette Hammes,
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Yang J, Xu J, Zhang L, Li Y, Chen M. Identifying key m 6A-methylated lncRNAs and genes associated with neural tube defects via integrative MeRIP and RNA sequencing analyses. Front Genet 2022; 13:974357. [PMID: 36482889 PMCID: PMC9722945 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.974357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a common post-transcriptional modification of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). However, m6A-modified lncRNAs are still largely unexplored. This study aimed to investigate differentially m6A-modified lncRNAs and genes involved in neural tube defect (NTD) development. Methods: Pregnant Kunming mice (9-10 weeks of age) were treated with retinoic acid to construct NTD models. m6A levels and methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) expression were evaluated in brain tissues of the NTD models. Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (MeRIP-seq) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) were performed on the NovaSeq platform and Illumina HiSeq 2,500 platform, respectively. Differentially m6A-methylated differentially expressed lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, followed by GO biological process and KEGG pathway functional enrichment analyses. Expression levels of several DElncRNAs and DEGs were evaluated by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) for validation. Results: m6A levels and METTL3 expression levels were significantly lower in the brain tissues of the NTD mouse model than in controls. By integrating MeRIP-seq and RNA-seq data, 13 differentially m6A-methylated DElncRNAs and 170 differentially m6A-methylated DEGs were identified. They were significantly enriched in the Hippo signaling pathway and mannose-type O-glycan biosynthesis. The qRT-PCR results confirmed the decreased expression levels of lncRNAs, such as Mir100hg, Gm19265, Gm10544, and Malat1, and genes, such as Zfp236, Erc2, and Hmg20a, in the NTD group. Conclusion: METTL3-mediated m6A modifications may be involved in NTD development. In particular, decreased expression levels of Mir100hg, Gm19265, Gm10544, Malat1, Zfp236, Erc2, and Hmg20a may contribute to the development of NTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- Department of Obstetrics, Affiliated Xiaoshan Hospital, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Fetal Medicine and Prenatal Diagnosis, Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Luting Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Fetal Medicine and Prenatal Diagnosis, Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yingting Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Fetal Medicine and Prenatal Diagnosis, Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Fetal Medicine and Prenatal Diagnosis, Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Gheasuddin Y, Galea GL. Cannabidiol impairs neural tube closure in mouse whole embryo culture. Birth Defects Res 2022; 114:1186-1193. [PMID: 35416425 PMCID: PMC9790336 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabidiol (CBD) is a nonpsychoactive constituent of cannabis widely available as a dietary supplement. Previous reports that it impairs the retinoid, sonic hedgehog, and folate metabolism pathways raise concern that it may impair closure of the embryonic neural tube (NT), producing NT defects including spina bifida and exencephaly. METHODS We undertook teratogenicity testing of CBD in mouse whole embryo culture. RESULTS At concentrations that do not diminish embryo viability, growth, or axial rotation, CBD dose-dependently impairs cranial NT closure, increasing the proportion of embryos that develop exencephaly. It concomitantly diminishes closure of the spinal NT, the posterior neuropore (PNP), producing longer neuropores at the end of culture which is a hallmark of spina bifida risk. Exposure to CBD does not disrupt the formation of long F-actin cables in surface ectoderm cells flanking the PNP or folding of the neuroepithelium at predictable hinge points. At the cellular level, CBD exposure does not alter proliferation or apoptosis of the spinal neuroepithelium. DISCUSSION Thus, CBD acts selectively as a neuroteratogen predisposing to spina bifida and exencephaly in mouse whole embryo culture at exposure levels not associated with overt toxicity. Large-scale testing of CBD's effects on NT closure, particularly in at-risk groups, is warranted to inform its marketing to women of childbearing age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuf Gheasuddin
- Developmental Biology and CancerUCL GOS Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
| | - Gabriel L. Galea
- Developmental Biology and CancerUCL GOS Institute of Child HealthLondonUK
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Engelhardt DM, Martyr CA, Niswander L. Pathogenesis of neural tube defects: The regulation and disruption of cellular processes underlying neural tube closure. WIREs Mech Dis 2022; 14:e1559. [PMID: 35504597 PMCID: PMC9605354 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Neural tube closure (NTC) is crucial for proper development of the brain and spinal cord and requires precise morphogenesis from a sheet of cells to an intact three-dimensional structure. NTC is dependent on successful regulation of hundreds of genes, a myriad of signaling pathways, concentration gradients, and is influenced by epigenetic and environmental cues. Failure of NTC is termed a neural tube defect (NTD) and is a leading class of congenital defects in the United States and worldwide. Though NTDs are all defined as incomplete closure of the neural tube, the pathogenesis of an NTD determines the type, severity, positioning, and accompanying phenotypes. In this review, we survey pathogenesis of NTDs relating to disruption of cellular processes arising from genetic mutations, altered epigenetic regulation, and environmental influences by micronutrients and maternal condition. This article is categorized under: Congenital Diseases > Genetics/Genomics/Epigenetics Neurological Diseases > Genetics/Genomics/Epigenetics Neurological Diseases > Stem Cells and Development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Engelhardt
- Molecular Cellular Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Cara A Martyr
- Molecular Cellular Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Lee Niswander
- Molecular Cellular Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
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Zohn IE. Model organisms and mechanisms of gene-environment interactions in structural birth defects. Genesis 2021; 59:e23461. [PMID: 34739742 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Irene E Zohn
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Health System, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
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