Parasite spillover: indirect effects of invasive Burmese pythons

Redescription of Raillietiella mottae (Raillietiellidae: Pentastomida) a generalist parasite of insectivorous lizards: phenotypic plasticity revealed by molecular data

Pentastomida are lung parasites of a variety of hosts, mainly reptiles. Raillietiella is the genus with the largest number of species, whose taxonomic identification is still largely based on morphological data alone. In this classification, differences divide the genus into morphotypic groups. The Raillietiella parasites of insectivorous lizards, for example, are divided into "Group I" with species with hooks with sharp tips and "Group II" with posterior hooks with blunt tips. In the present work, we used molecular analysis to infer the morphological variation in hooks and size of specimens of Raillietiella mottae, parasites of several species of insectivorous lizards. Our results demonstrate that morphological differences comprise a phenotypic plasticity of a single species, whose variation is associated with host species, with females being larger and with hooks with blunt tips in nocturnal geckos and smaller ones with sharp tips in diurnal insectivorous lizards of different species, sizes, and habitats.

Mammalian lures monitored with time-lapse cameras increase detection of pythons and other snakes

Background

Enhancing detection of cryptic snakes is critical for the development of conservation and management strategies; yet, finding methods that provide adequate detection remains challenging. Issues with detecting snakes can be particularly problematic for some species, like the invasive Burmese python (Python bivittatus) in the Florida Everglades.

Methods

Using multiple survey methods, we predicted that our ability to detect pythons, larger snakes and all other snakes would be enhanced with the use of live mammalian lures (domesticated rabbits; Oryctolagus cuniculus). Specifically, we used visual surveys, python detection dogs, and time-lapse game cameras to determine if domesticated rabbits were an effective lure.

Results

Time-lapse game cameras detected almost 40 times more snakes (n = 375, treatment = 245, control = 130) than visual surveys (n = 10). We recorded 21 independent detections of pythons at treatment pens (with lures) and one detection at a control pen (without lures). In addition, we found larger snakes, and all other snakes were 165% and 74% more likely to be detected at treatment pens compared to control pens, respectively. Time-lapse cameras detected almost 40 times more snakes than visual surveys; we did not detect any pythons with python detection dogs.

Conclusions

Our study presents compelling evidence that the detection of snakes is improved by coupling live mammalian lures with time-lapse game cameras. Although the identification of smaller snake species was limited, this was due to pixel resolution, which could be improved by changing the camera focal length. For larger snakes with individually distinctive patterns, this method could potentially be used to identify unique individuals and thus allow researchers to estimate population dynamics.

Identifying inconsistencies in exotic pet regulations that perpetuate trade in risky species

Regulatory inconsistencies at different jurisdictional levels have contributed to the global expansion of the exotic pet trade, with resultant increases in the spread of invasive species and pathogens. Researchers have enumerated multiple limitations and environmental risks posed by international and national rules that govern the exotic pet trade, yet little attention has focused on the regulation of the exotic pet trade within national borders. We reviewed state-level regulations that apply to the trade of vertebrate animal taxa in the United States. Definitions and classifications for regulating different vertebrate taxa varied greatly across states, and the terms pet and companion animal were poorly defined and inconsistent across states. States implemented regulations that permit trade in exotic vertebrate pets that are banned from import into the United States owing to public health and conservation concerns. Once species have been imported into the United States, inconsistent internal regulations facilitate the movement of animals that pose substantial invasion and disease risks. Violations of state laws were typically listed as misdemeanors, and the median fine for violating state wildlife trade laws was $1000. Inconsistent and incomplete regulation of exotic vertebrate pets across state borders, in conjunction with limited penalties for violating regulations, has facilitated continued possession of exotic pets in states where these animals are banned. Based on our review of regulatory weaknesses, we conclude that a transition to a federally enforced list of vertebrate species that may be traded as pets is needed, with all other vertebrate species banned from the exotic pet trade unless their potential invasion and disease risks have been assessed and demonstrated to be low or nonexistent.

Health Assessment of Free-Ranging Eastern Indigo Snakes (Drymarchon couperi) from Hydrologic Restoration Construction Sites in South Florida, USA

There is a paucity of information regarding the health status of free-ranging eastern indigo snakes (EIS; Drymarchon couperi) in heavily modified and developing landscapes. As a component of regional Florida Everglades restoration efforts, several areas occupied by EIS are being converted from agricultural lands to reservoirs. From 2020 to 2022, 28 EIS were opportunistically captured at two of these sites and brought into captivity to join a captive breeding colony; however, 11 snakes died within 5 mo of capture. Health assessments were performed on 28 individuals and included hematology and plasma biochemistry analysis, as well as screening for pesticide contaminant levels, parasites, and other pathogens. Overall, the presence of pathogens was relatively high, suggesting immunosuppression secondary to stress: 25/28 (89.4%) Kalicephalus sp.; 12/28 (42.9%) Raillietiella orientalis; 11/28 (39.2%) Ochetosoma validum; 7/28 (25.0%) Cryptosporidium serpentis; 3/28 (10.7%) snake adenovirus 1; and 1/28 (3.6%) Ferlavirus genotype C. Stress may have been caused by physical displacement, habitat modification, and noise pollution. These potential stressors (including the presence of remnant harmful chemicals from previous land use and the impacts on this federally threatened species) should be considered further when making restoration or construction decisions.

Proliferative strongyloidiasis in a colony of colubrid snakes

Strongyloides are small rhabditid nematodes primarily associated with enteric disease in a variety of animal species, including reptiles. Strongyloides spp life stages were associated with a disease outbreak in a large breeding colony of snakes. Multiple Pantherophis and Lampropeltis colubrids exhibited respiratory distress, anorexia, stomatitis, facial deformation, and waning body condition that resulted in death or necessitated euthanasia. Postmortem examinations of 13 snakes revealed epithelial hyperplasia and inflammation of the alimentary and respiratory tracts associated with varying numbers of adult and larval nematodes and embryonated or larvated ova. In a subset of snakes, aberrant nematode migration was also observed in the eye, genitourinary system, coelom, and vasculature. Histomorphology and gross examination of parasitic adult female nematodes from host tissues were consistent with a Strongyloides spp. Sedimented fecal material from 101/160 (63%) snakes housed in the affected facility was positive for nematodes and/or larvated ova. Polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing of portions of the 18S and 28S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RNA) genes and the internal transcribed spacer region of adult female parasites and positive fecal samples supported the diagnosis of strongyloidiasis. Strongyloides spp possess a unique life cycle capable of alternating between parasitic (homogonic) and free-living (heterogonic) stages, resulting in the production of directly infective larvae. Commonly utilized husbandry practices in reptile collections can amplify the numbers of infective larvae generated in the captive environment, increasing the risk for rhabditid hyperinfections. This report documents morbidity, mortality, and non-enteric disease manifestations due to Strongyloides hyperinfections in a captive colubrid snake colony.

Systematic assessment of nymphs of Diesingiinae (Pentastomida: Sebekidae) parasitizing Palloceros harpagos (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae) from Parque Nacional Iguazú, Argentina: filling gaps in an incomplete phylogenetic framework

During a search for parasites in fishes from Iguazu River, Argentina, a nymph of pentastomid was found encysted on mesenteries of Phalloceros harpagos. The 28S rDNA and COI mt-DNA were used to compare with the sequences deposited in the GenBank. Pentastomid nymphs belong to the subfamily Diesingiinae (Sebekidae) for having chloride cell pores distributed in a single row per annulus; also, the hooks and rows of spines of our material differ to other genera. Present specimens are most likely Diesingia sp., having 63-74 annuli, a U shaped oral cadre with fibers closing anteriorly and a peg like extension of the oral cadre. The 28S rDNA analysis places our samples into a sister group of Alofia sp., but the COI mt-DNA situate them on the base of the clade. In conclusion, our pentastomid positively belongs to Diesingia sp., however, indisputable assignation requires a reliable description of the nymph, or the availability of sequences linking nymphs and adults, which even could provide evidence of a new hitherto undescribed genus. Aditionally, the systematic position of Sebekia oxycephala previously described by P. harpagos is discussed on the basis of our results, allowing us to suggest a re-assignation of such specimens to the genus Diesingia.

Invasive parasites and global change: Evidence for the recent and rapid spillover of a potential pathogen of tilapias with a complex, three-host life cycle

Biological invasions pose a serious threat to local flora and fauna and have negative impacts on ecosystems. Invasive parasites can also cause severe losses in aquaculture. In this article, we provide evidence of the recent spillover of an African parasite with a complex, three-host life cycle that has rapidly and successfully established itself in the Middle East, most likely due to the recent migration of its final hosts (great cormorant) from Africa. This case of parasite introduction into a country with intensive aquaculture is also important from an economic point of view, since large (up to 2 cm long) larvae of this parasite, the cyclophyllidean tapeworm Amirthalingamia macracantha (Cestoda) localised in the liver, can be pathogenic to their fish hosts, including farmed and wild fish, as shown by our histopathological examination of heavily infected fish. Since its first detection in Israel in November 2020, the parasite has spread rapidly and is currently found in both migratory (great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo) and non-migratory birds (pygmy cormorant, Microcarbo pygmaeus), as well as in fish intermediate hosts, including farmed tilapia in several farms in Israel and wild cichlids. There are numerous examples of the spillover of introduced parasites, including those that parasitise fish of commercial importance, but have a direct life cycle or use only a single intermediate host. Tilapines are the second most important group of farmed fish in the world after carps and are produced mainly in Southeast Asia, Central and South America. The global spread of great cormorants and the early evidence that pygmy cormorant may also harbour A. macracantha pose the risk of further spread of this invasive parasite to other countries and areas. In addition, global warming and reductions in foraging and resting areas near these waters may allow the parasite to complete its life cycle in new hosts.

The mitochondrial genome of the pentastome parasite Raillietiella orientalis Hett, 1915 (Raillietiellida; Raillietiellidae) with notes on its phylogenetic position

In this study we sequenced and annotated the complete mitochondrial genome of the invasive reptile parasite Raillietiella orientalis using Illumina DNA sequencing. The length of the mitogenome was 15,320 bp and had a GC content of 33.1%. The mitogenome contained 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes, the order of which was diagnostic of Pancrustacean mitogenomes. A phylogenetic tree constructed from the 13 protein-coding genes of R. orientalis and 26 other Pancrustacean mitogenomes supported the placement of R. orientalis as part of the monophyletic subclass Pentastomida within the Maxillopoda and sister to the subclass Branchiura.

The invasive pentastome Raillietiella orientalis in a banded water snake from the pet trade

Raillietiella orientalis is established in Florida and rapidly spreading both geographically and in known host species. A banded water snake (Nerodia fasciata), purchased in Michigan at a regional reptile show, expectorated a pentastome whose morphology and DNA sequence indicated that it was R. orientalis. This event indicates that, through the pet trade, R. orientalis has been spread 1,500 km from its previously known distribution limit. Fecal sample analyses indicated that the snake was shedding large numbers of embryonated eggs for at least several months. The diversity of reptile species that are both known hosts of R. orientalis in Florida and are commonly sold in the pet trade indicates that this invasive pentastome may become a widespread health concern for pet owners and veterinarians.

Travelling with a parasite: the evolution of resistance and dispersal syndromes during experimental range expansion

Rapid evolutionary change during range expansions can lead to diverging range core and front populations, with the emergence of dispersal syndromes (coupled responses in dispersal and life-history traits). Besides intraspecific effects, range expansions may be impacted by interspecific interactions such as parasitism. Yet, despite the potentially large impact of parasites imposing additional selective pressures on the host, their role on range expansions remains largely unexplored. Using microcosm populations of the ciliate Paramecium caudatum and its bacterial parasite Holospora undulata, we studied experimental range expansions under parasite presence or absence. We found that the interaction of range expansion and parasite treatments affected the evolution of host dispersal syndromes. Namely, front populations showed different associations of population growth parameters and swimming behaviours than core populations, indicating divergent evolution. Parasitism reshaped trait associations, with hosts evolved in the presence of the parasite exhibiting overall increased resistance and reduced dispersal. Nonetheless, when comparing infected range core and front populations, we found a positive association, suggesting joint evolution of resistance and dispersal at the front. We conclude that host-parasite interactions during range expansions can change evolutionary trajectories; this in turn may feedback on the ecological dynamics of the range expansion and parasite epidemics.

Burmese pythons in Florida: A synthesis of biology, impacts, and management tools

Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) are native to southeastern Asia, however, there is an established invasive population inhabiting much of southern Florida throughout the Greater Everglades Ecosystem. Pythons have severely impacted native species and ecosystems in Florida and represent one of the most intractable invasive-species management issues across the globe. The difficulty stems from a unique combination of inaccessible habitat and the cryptic and resilient nature of pythons that thrive in the subtropical environment of southern Florida, rendering them extremely challenging to detect. Here we provide a comprehensive review and synthesis of the science relevant to managing invasive Burmese pythons. We describe existing control tools and review challenges to productive research, identifying key knowledge gaps that would improve future research and decision making for python control.

Divergent Serpentoviruses in Free-Ranging Invasive Pythons and Native Colubrids in Southern Florida, United States

Burmese python (Python bivittatus) is an invasive snake that has significantly affected ecosystems in southern Florida, United States. Aside from direct predation and competition, invasive species can also introduce nonnative pathogens that can adversely affect native species. The subfamily Serpentovirinae (order Nidovirales) is composed of positive-sense RNA viruses primarily found in reptiles. Some serpentoviruses, such as shingleback nidovirus, are associated with mortalities in wild populations, while others, including ball python nidovirus and green tree python nidovirus can be a major cause of disease and mortality in captive animals. To determine if serpentoviruses were present in invasive Burmese pythons in southern Florida, oral swabs were collected from both free-ranging and long-term captive snakes. Swabs were screened for the presence of serpentovirus by reverse transcription PCR and sequenced. A total serpentovirus prevalence of 27.8% was detected in 318 python samples. Of the initial swabs from 172 free-ranging pythons, 42 (24.4%) were positive for multiple divergent viral sequences comprising four clades across the sampling range. Both sex and snout-vent length were statistically significant factors in virus prevalence, with larger male snakes having the highest prevalence. Sampling location was statistically significant in circulating virus sequence. Mild clinical signs and lesions consistent with serpentovirus infection were observed in a subset of sampled pythons. Testing of native snakes (n = 219, 18 species) in part of the python range found no evidence of python virus spillover; however, five individual native snakes (2.3%) representing three species were PCR positive for unique, divergent serpentoviruses. Calculated pairwise uncorrected distance analysis indicated the newly discovered virus sequences likely represent three novel genera in the subfamily Serpentovirinae. This study is the first to characterize serpentovirus in wild free-ranging pythons or in any free-ranging North America reptile. Though the risk these viruses pose to the invasive and native species is unknown, the potential for spillover to native herpetofauna warrants further investigation.

Size distribution and reproductive phenology of the invasive Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida, USA

The design of successful invasive species control programs is often hindered by the absence of basic demographic data on the targeted population. Establishment of invasive Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida USA has led to local precipitous declines (> 90%) of mesomammal populations and is also a major threat to native populations of reptiles and birds. Efforts to control this species are ongoing but are hampered by the lack of access to and information on the expected biological patterns of pythons in southern Florida. We present data from more than 4,000 wild Burmese pythons that were removed in southern Florida over 26 years (1995–2021), the most robust dataset representing this invasive population to date. We used these data to characterize Burmese python size distribution, size at maturity, clutch size, and seasonal demographic and reproductive trends. We broadened the previously described size ranges by sex and, based on our newly defined size-stage classes, showed that males are smaller than females at sexual maturity, confirmed a positive correlation between maternal body size and potential clutch size, and developed predictive equations to facilitate demographic predictions. We also refined the annual breeding season (approx.100 days December into March), oviposition timing (May), and hatchling emergence and dispersal period (July through October) using correlations of capture morphometrics with observations of seasonal gonadal recrudescence (resurgence) and regression. Determination of reproductive output and timing can inform population models and help managers arrest population growth by targeting key aspects of python life history. These results define characteristics of the species in Florida and provide an enhanced understanding of the ecology and reproductive biology of Burmese pythons in their invasive Everglades range.

The first Linguatula serrata case in an imported dog in Finland

Linguatula serrata is a pentastomid parasite infecting carnivores as definitive hosts and herbivores as intermediate hosts. In carnivores, including dogs, it usually parasitises the nasal cavity and sinuses, causing upper respiratory signs. This case report presents the first canine Linguatula case in Finland in an imported dog originating from Spain. In addition to the unremarkable clinical history of the dog, the treatment, parasite's morphology and molecular analysis are described, and the zoonotic potential is discussed.

Invasion history shapes host transcriptomic response to a body-snatching parasite

By shuffling biogeographical distributions, biological invasions can both disrupt long-standing associations between hosts and parasites and establish new ones. This creates natural experiments with which to study the ecology and evolution of host-parasite interactions. In estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico, the white-fingered mud crab (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) is infected by a native parasitic barnacle, Loxothylacus panopaei (Rhizocephala), which manipulates host physiology and behaviour. In the 1960s, L. panopaei was introduced to the Chesapeake Bay and has since expanded along the southeastern Atlantic coast, while host populations in the northeast have so far been spared. We use this system to test the host's transcriptomic response to parasitic infection and investigate how this response varies with the parasite's invasion history, comparing populations representing (i) long-term sympatry between host and parasite, (ii) new associations where the parasite has invaded during the last 60 years and (iii) naïve hosts without prior exposure. A comparison of parasitized and control crabs revealed a core response, with widespread downregulation of transcripts involved in immunity and moulting. The transcriptional response differed between hosts from the parasite's native range and where it is absent, consistent with previous observations of increased susceptibility in populations lacking exposure to the parasite. Crabs from the parasite's introduced range, where prevalence is highest, displayed the most dissimilar response, possibly reflecting immune priming. These results provide molecular evidence for parasitic manipulation of host phenotype and the role of gene regulation in mediating host-parasite interactions.

Sperm cryopreservation in the Burmese python Python bivittatus as a model for endangered snakes

Burmese pythons Python bivittatus captured in the Florida Everglades as part of an invasive species monitoring program served as a model for the development of sperm cryopreservation protocols for endangered snakes. Spermatozoa were collected from the vas deferens and initial motility, plasma membrane integrity and acrosome integrity were recorded before cryopreservation. Spermatozoa were extended in TES and Tris (TEST) yolk buffer with glycerol (GLY) or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) concentrations of 8%, 12% or 16%, or combinations of GLY and DMSO with final concentrations of 4%:4%, 6%:6% or 8%:8%, and frozen at a rate of 0.3°C min-1. Sperm frozen in combinations of GLY and DMSO exhibited greater post-thaw motility and plasma membrane integrity than those frozen in GLY or DMSO alone. All DMSO and GLY:DMSO treatments preserved a greater proportion of intact acrosomes than GLY alone. To determine the best overall cryopreservation protocol for this species, a sperm quality index was calculated, giving equal weight to each of the three measured indicators of cryosurvival. This analysis revealed that Burmese python spermatozoa frozen in 6% GLY:6% DMSO or 4% GLY:4% DMSO exhibited the highest post-thaw viability. This study represents the first comparative, comprehensive attempt to develop a sperm cryopreservation protocol for any snake species.

Invading parasites: spillover of an alien nematode reduces survival in a native species

It is widely assumed that spillover of alien parasites to native host species severely impacts naïve populations, ultimately conferring a competitive advantage to invading hosts that introduced them. Despite such host-switching events occurring in biological invasions, studies demonstrating the impact of alien macroparasites on native animal hosts are surprisingly few. In Europe, native red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) are replaced by introduced North American grey squirrels (S. carolinensis) mainly through resource competition, and, only in the United Kingdom and Ireland, by competition mediated by a viral disease. In Italy such disease is absent, but spillover of an introduced North American nematode (Strongyloides robustus) from grey to red squirrels is known to occur. Here, we used long-term (9 years) capture-mark-recapture and parasitological data of red squirrels in areas co-inhabited by grey squirrels in Northern Italy to investigate the impact of this alien helminth on naïve native squirrels’ body mass, local survival, and reproduction of females. We found no negative effect of the alien parasite on body mass or reproductive success, but intensity of infection by S. robustus reduced survival of both male and female squirrels. Significantly, survival of squirrels co-infected by their native nematode, Trypanoxyuris sciuri, was less affected by S. robustus, suggesting a protective effect of the native helminth against the new infection. Hence, we demonstrate that alien S. robustus spillover adds to the detrimental effects of resource competition and stress induced by grey squirrels, further reducing the fitness of the native species in the presence of the invasive competitor.

Argentine Black and White Tegu (Salvator merianae) can survive the winter under semi-natural conditions well beyond their current invasive range

The Argentine Black and White Tegu (Salvator merianae, formerly Tupinambis merianae) is a large lizard from South America. Now established and invasive in southern Florida, and it poses threats to populations of many native species. Models suggest much of the southern United States may contain suitable temperature regimes for this species, yet there is considerable uncertainty regarding either the potential for range expansion northward out of tropical and subtropical zones or the potential for the species establishing elsewhere following additional independent introductions. We evaluated survival, body temperature, duration and timing of winter dormancy, and health of wild-caught tegus from southern Florida held in semi-natural enclosures for over a year in Auburn, Alabama (> 900 km northwest of capture location). Nine of twelve lizards emerged from winter dormancy and seven survived the greater-than-one-year duration of the study. Average length of dormancy (176 d) was greater than that reported in the native range or for invasive populations in southern Florida and females remained dormant longer than males. Tegus grew rapidly throughout the study and the presence of sperm in the testes of males and previtellogenic or early vitellogenic follicles in female ovaries at the end of our study suggest the animals would have been capable of reproduction the following spring. The survival and overall health of the majority of adult tegus in our study suggests weather and climate patterns are unlikely to prevent survival following introduction in many areas of the United States far from their current invasive range.

Vector-Borne Blood Parasites of the Great-Tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus) in East-Central Texas, USA

Great-tailed grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus) have dramatically expanded into North America over the past century. However, little is known about the blood that parasites they support. Here, for the first time, we document an assemblage of trypanosome, haemosporida, and filarial nematodes co-circulating in invasive great-tailed grackles. Between February and July, 2015, 61 individuals were captured in an urban environment of College Station, Texas. Field microscopy and molecular diagnostics indicate that 52% (24/46) were visually infected with filarioid nematodes, 24% (11/46) with avian trypanosomes, and 73% (n = 44/60) with haemosporida parasites, such as Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus) and Plasmodium cathemerium. Overall, 87% of great-tailed grackles were infected with blood parasites. Although 50% of individuals hosted parasites from multiple phylum, no patterns of parasite assembly were observed. Results indicate that great-tailed grackles can support a relatively high level of blood parasitism. However, the consequences for avian health remain to be determined.

Case Report: Invasive Pentastomes, Raillietiella orientalis (Sambon, 1922), in a Free-Ranging Banded Water Snake (Nerodia fasciata) in North Central Florida, USA

Raillietiella orientalis is an obligate, crustacean parasite that resides in the respiratory tract of definitive snake hosts. Common throughout southeastern Asia and Australia, R. orientalis is believed to have been introduced into southern Florida, United States along with Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) in the 1990s. While the invasive range of Burmese pythons is restricted to southern Florida, R. orientalis has advanced north in the state in native snake species. R. orientalis were recovered from the lungs, trachea, oral cavity, and esophagus of an emaciated adult female free-ranging banded water snake (Nerodia fasciata) in north central (Alachua County), Florida, USA. Concurrent findings included the recovery of Ochetosoma sp. trematodes from the oral cavity, and multifocal dermal lesions consistent with snake fungal disease (Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola). This is the first report of R. orientalis in north central Florida, well outside the invasive range of the Burmese python, documenting the substantial northward expansion of the known geographical range of this invasive pentastome in Florida.

Zoonotic Parasites of Reptiles: A Crawling Threat

Reptiles are reservoirs of a wide range of pathogens, including many protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod parasitic species, some of which may be of public health concern. In this review we discuss the zoonotic risks associated with human–reptile interactions. Increased urbanization and introduction of exotic species of reptile may act as drivers for the transmission of zoonotic parasites through the environment. In addition, being a part of human diet, reptiles can be a source of life-threatening parasitoses, such as pentastomiasis or sparganosis. Finally, reptiles kept as pets may represent a risk to owners given the possibility of parasites transmitted by direct contact or fecal contamination. Awareness of reptile-borne zoonotic parasitoses is important to advocate control, prevention, and surveillance of these neglected diseases.

Species of protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod vectors exploit reptiles as definitive or paratenic hosts, which may represent a public health concern.

The zoonotic risk is associated with human–reptile interactions and includes environmental contamination, reptile consumption, or keeping reptiles as pets.

Exotic reptile species may introduce new zoonotic parasites in a previously nonendemic region.

Pentastomiasis and sparganosis are life-threatening food-borne parasitoses.

In our households, if precautions are not taken, reptiles may transmit zoonotic parasites by direct contact or fecal contamination.

Trained veterinarians, physicians, and public health officials are important to advocate for proper diagnostics, parasite identification and treatment, as well as for surveillance strategies and food inspection in areas where reptiles are consumed.

Visceral infection by Porocephalus spp. (Pentastomida) in Neotropical wild mammals

Larval stages of pentastomids were collected from different organs of small mammals from the Peruvian Amazon. These parasitized mammals included: a western Amazonian oryzomys (Hylaeamys perenensis), an elegant oryzomys (Euryoryzomys nitidus), a lowland paca (Cuniculus paca), two kinkajous (Potos flavus), two silvery woolly monkeys (Lagothrix poeppigii) and a brown-mantled tamarin (Leontocebus fuscicollis). Pentastomids were found in the mesentery and parenchyma of the liver and lungs of these animals. All pentastomids were morphologically identified as nymphs of Porocephalus spp. Only the nymphs collected from select animals (the western Amazonian oryzomys, the elegant oryzomys and the brown-mantled tamarin) were analysed molecularly. Molecular analysis was performed amplifying the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene from select nymphs collected from the western Amazonian oryzomys, the elegant oryzomys and the brown-mantled tamarin. The nucleotide sequences exhibited 95.8-97.7% similarity between them. Also, these sequences showed an identity of 95.8-97.9% to Porocephalus crotali (GenBank accession numbers MG559647-MG559655). Molecular analysis indicated the presence of at least two Porocephalus species. These findings represent the first record of Porocephalus in these mammals, thus adding new intermediate hosts for this pentastomid genus. This work represents the first molecular data of Porocephalus in a Neotropical climate.

Host-specific phenotypic variation of a parasite co-introduced with invasive Burmese pythons

Invasive Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus Kuhl, 1820) have introduced a lung parasite, Raillietiella orientalis, (Hett, 1915) from the python's native range in Southeast Asia to its introduced range in Florida, where parasite spillover from pythons to two families and eight genera of native snakes has occurred. Because these novel host species present a diversity of ecological and morphological traits, and because these parasites attach to their hosts with hooks located on their cephalothorax, we predicted that R. orientalis would exhibit substantial, host-associated phenotypic plasticity in cephalothorax shape. Indeed, geometric morphometric analyses of 39 parasites from five host species revealed significant variation among host taxa in R. orientalis cephalothorax shape. We observed differences associated with host ecology, where parasites from semi-aquatic and aquatic snakes exhibited the greatest morphological similarity. Morphological analyses of R. orientalis recovered from invasive pythons, native pit vipers, and terrestrial snakes each revealed distinct shapes. Our results suggest R. orientalis can exhibit significant differences in morphology based upon host species infected, and this plasticity may facilitate infection with this non-native parasite in a wide array of novel squamate host species.

The impact of parasites during range expansion of an invasive gecko

Host–parasite dynamics can play a fundamental role in both the establishment success of invasive species and their impact on native wildlife. The net impact of parasites depends on their capacity to switch effectively between native and invasive hosts. Here we explore host-switching, spatial patterns and simple fitness measures in a slow-expanding invasion: the invasion of Asian house geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus) from urban areas into bushland in Northeast Australia. In bushland close to urban edges, H. frenatus co-occurs with, and at many sites now greatly out-numbers, native geckos. We measured prevalence and intensity of Geckobia mites (introduced with H. frenatus), and Waddycephalus (a native pentastome). We recorded a new invasive mite species, and several new host associations for native mites and geckos, but we found no evidence of mite transmission between native and invasive geckos. In contrast, native Waddycephalus nymphs were commonly present in H. frenatus, demonstrating this parasite's capacity to utilize H. frenatus as a novel host. Prevalence of mites on H. frenatus decreased with distance from the urban edge, suggesting parasite release towards the invasion front; however, we found no evidence that mites affect H. frenatus body condition or lifespan. Waddycephalus was present at low prevalence in bushland sites and, although its presence did not affect host body condition, our data suggest that it may reduce host survival. The high relative density of H. frenatus at our sites, and their capacity to harbour Waddycephalus, suggests that there may be impacts on native geckos and snakes through parasite spillback.

Parasite spillover: indirect effects of invasive Burmese pythons

Identification of the origin of parasites of nonindigenous species (NIS) can be complex. NIS may introduce parasites from their native range and acquire parasites from within their invaded range. Determination of whether parasites are non-native or native can be complicated when parasite genera occur within both the NIS' native range and its introduced range. We explored potential for spillover and spillback of lung parasites infecting Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) in their invasive range (Florida). We collected 498 indigenous snakes of 26 species and 805 Burmese pythons during 2004-2016 and examined them for lung parasites. We used morphology to identify three genera of pentastome parasites, Raillietiella, a cosmopolitan form, and Porocephalus and Kiricephalus, both New World forms. We sequenced these parasites at one mitochondrial and one nuclear locus and showed that each genus is represented by a single species, R. orientalis, P. crotali, and K. coarctatus. Pythons are host to R. orientalis and P. crotali, but not K. coarctatus; native snakes are host to all three species. Sequence data show that pythons introduced R. orientalis to North America, where this parasite now infects native snakes. Additionally, our data suggest that pythons are competent hosts to P. crotali, a widespread parasite native to North and South America that was previously hypothesized to infect only viperid snakes. Our results indicate invasive Burmese pythons have affected parasite-host dynamics of native snakes in ways that are consistent with parasite spillover and demonstrate the potential for indirect effects during invasions. Additionally, we show that pythons have acquired a parasite native to their introduced range, which is the initial condition necessary for parasite spillback.