1
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Zhang L, Wu P, Xiang X, Yang D, Wang L, Hu Z. Optimization of Physical Refining Process of Camellia Oil for Reduction of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol (3-MCPD) Ester Formation Using Response Surface Methodology on a Laboratory Scale. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28083616. [PMID: 37110851 PMCID: PMC10145087 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28083616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Refined and deodorized camellia oil has been reported to contain a high amount of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) due to the high-temperature deodorization step. To reduce 3-MCPDE in camellia oil, the physical refining process of camellia oil was simulated on a laboratory scale. Response surface methodology (RSM) was designed to modify and optimize the refining process with five processing parameters (water degumming dosage, degumming temperature, activated clay dosage, deodorization temperature and deodorization time). The optimized new refining approach achieved a 76.9% reduction in 3-MCPDE contents, in which the degumming moisture was 2.97%, the degumming temperature was 50.5 °C, the activated clay dosage was 2.69%, the deodorizing temperature was 230 °C, and the deodorizing time was 90 min. A significance test and analysis of variance results demonstrated that the deodorization temperature and deodorization time contributed significantly to the reduction of 3-MCPD ester. The joint interaction effects of activated clay dosage and deodorization temperature were significant for 3-MCPD ester formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqun Zhang
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Hangzhou, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Pinggu Wu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
| | - Xiaoling Xiang
- Administration Bureau of Pidu Chinese Sichuan Cuisine Industrial Park, Chengdu 611730, China
| | - Dajin Yang
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100051, China
| | - Liyuan Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
| | - Zhengyan Hu
- Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou 310051, China
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2
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Sun C, Wu N, Kou S, Wu H, Liu Y, Pei A, Li Q. Occurrence, formation mechanism, detection methods, and removal approaches for chloropropanols and their esters in food: An updated systematic review. Food Chem X 2023; 17:100529. [PMID: 36845468 PMCID: PMC9943786 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2022.100529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloropropanols, one of the major contaminants in food, and the corresponding esters or glycidyl esters (GEs) are of great concern in terms of product safety due to their potential carcinogenicity. During heat processing, glycerol, allyl alcohol, chloropropanol esters, sucralose, and carbohydrate in mixed foodstuffs are probable precursors of chloropropanol. The standard analytical techniques for chloropropanols or their esters are GC-MS or LC-MS following sample derivatization pretreatment. By comparing modern data against that five-year-old before, it appears that the levels of chloropropanols and their esters/GEs in food products have somewhat decreased. 3-MCPD esters or GEs may yet exceed the permitted intake set, however, especially in newborn formula which requires particularly stringent regulatory measures. Citespace (6.1. R2) software was employed in this study to examine the research focii of chloropropanols and their corresponding esters/GEs in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changxia Sun
- College of Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ni Wu
- College of Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing 100083, China
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shunli Kou
- Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Zhejiang 310023, China
| | - Haolin Wu
- College of Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yu Liu
- College of Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing 100083, China
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Annan Pei
- College of Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing 100083, China
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Qiang Li
- College of Science, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Forest Food Processing and Safety, Beijing 100083, China
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3
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Yoshinaga K, Yamazaki K, Nagai T, Tanaka S, Gotoh N. Stable Isotope Tracer to Reveal the Interconversion between 3-Monochloro-1,2-propanediol Ester and Glycidyl Ester during the Deodorization Process. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:15955-15961. [PMID: 36480579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the effects of the deodorization process on the interconversion between 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE) using 3-MCPDE or GE standards containing deuterium-labeled palmitic acid (*P), oleic acid (*O), or linoleic acid (*L) were examined. Deuterium-labeled 3-MCPDE or GE was added to palm oil then deodorized at 250 °C for 20, 40, or 60 min. In the 3-MCPDE-spiked palm oil, the deuterium-labeled 3-MCPDE content decreased with deodorization time. Moreover, GE containing *P or *O was detected, but there was no GE containing *L in the 3-MCPDE-spiked palm oil. In the GE-spiked oil, GE containing *O or *L decreased with deodorization time, but the content of GE containing *P did not change over the time. Furthermore, deuterium-labeled 3-MCPDE was not detected in the GE-spiked oil. These results suggest that 3-MCPDE is converted into GE and that fatty acid species bound to 3-MCPDE or GE may affect their interconversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuaki Yoshinaga
- Faculty of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Fukushima University, 1 Kanayagawa, Fukushima 960-1296, Japan
| | - Kaori Yamazaki
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8477, Japan
| | - Toshiharu Nagai
- Tsukishima Foods Industry Co., Ltd., 3-17-9 Higashi Kasai, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 134-8520, Japan
| | - Seiya Tanaka
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8477, Japan
| | - Naohiro Gotoh
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8477, Japan
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4
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Shafika Abdul Kadir N, Khor YP, Lee YJ, Lan D, Qi S, Wang Y, Tan CP. Formation of 3-MCPD and glycidyl esters in biscuits produced using soybean oil-based diacylglycerol stearin-shortening blends: Impacts of different baking temperatures and blending ratios. Food Res Int 2022; 162:112055. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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5
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Andrade SS, Sampaio KA, Costa MC, Corbi PP, Meirelles AJ, Maximo GJ. Solid-liquid equilibrium of free form of oil contaminants (3-MCPD and glycidol) in lipidic systems. Food Res Int 2022; 160:111740. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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6
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Oey SB, van der Fels-Klerx H, Fogliano V, van Leeuwen SP. Chemical refining methods effectively mitigate 2-MCPD esters, 3-MCPD esters, and glycidyl esters formation in refined vegetable oils. Food Res Int 2022; 156:111137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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7
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Taş NG, Kocadağlı T, Gökmen V. Safety concerns of processed foods in terms of neo-formed contaminants and NOVA classification. Curr Opin Food Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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8
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Beekmann K, Sloot S, Oey S, van Leeuwen S. MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in food supplements of fish oils, algae oils, and krill oils. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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9
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Ahmad Tarmizi AH, Abd Razak RA, Abdul Hammid AN, Kuntom A. Thermal stability and transient of esterified 3‐MCPD and glycidol during atmospheric frying and subsequent low‐pressure drainage of products with different surface‐to‐volume ratio. Int J Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.15377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Raznim Arni Abd Razak
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board 6, Persiaran Institusi Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang Selangor 43000 Malaysia
| | | | - Ainie Kuntom
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board 6, Persiaran Institusi Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang Selangor 43000 Malaysia
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10
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Tiong SH, Nair A, Abd Wahid SA, Saparin N, Ab Karim NA, Ahmad Sabri MP, Md Zain MZ, Teh HF, Adni AS, Ping Tan C, Lai OM, Cheah SS, Appleton DR. Palm oil supply chain factors impacting chlorinated precursors of 3-MCPD esters. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:2012-2025. [PMID: 34407744 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1960430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Chlorinated compounds such as sphingolipid-based organochlorine compounds are precursors for the formation of 3-monochlororopanediol (3-MCPD) esters in palm oil. This study evaluates the effects of several factors within the palm oil supply chain on the levels of sphingolipid-based organochlorine, which in turn may influence the formation of 3-MCPD esters during refining. These factors include application of inorganic chlorinated fertiliser in the oil palm plantation, bruising and degradation of oil palm fruits after harvest, recycling of steriliser condensate as water for dilution of crude oil during oil palm milling, water washing of palm oil and different refining conditions. It was observed that bruised and degraded oil palm fruits showed higher content of sphingolipid-based organochlorine than control. In addition, recycling steriliser condensate during milling resulted in elevated content of sphingolipid-based organochlorine in palm oil. However, the content of sphingolipid-based organochlorine compounds was reduced by neutralisation, degumming and bleaching steps during refining. Although water washing of crude palm oils (CPO) prior to refining did not reduce the content of sphingolipid-based organochlorine, it did reduce the formation of 3-MCPD esters through the removal of water-soluble chlorinated compounds. It was found that the use of inorganic chlorinated fertiliser in plantations did not increase the content of chlorinated compounds in oil palm fruits and extracted oil, and hence chlorinated fertiliser does not seem to play a role in the formation of 3-MCPD esters in palm oil. Overall, this study concluded that lack of freshness and damage to the fruits during transport to mills, combined with water and oil recycling in mills are the major contributors of chlorinated precursor for 3-MCPD esters formation in palm oil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soon Huat Tiong
- Sime Darby Plantation Technology Centre Sdn Bhd, 1st Floor, Block B, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre III, Lebuh Silikon, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.,Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Anusha Nair
- Sime Darby Plantation Technology Centre Sdn Bhd, 1st Floor, Block B, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre III, Lebuh Silikon, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | | | - Norliza Saparin
- Sime Darby Plantation Research Sdn Bhd, Carey Island, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Mohd Zairey Md Zain
- Sime Darby Plantation Technology Centre Sdn Bhd, 1st Floor, Block B, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre III, Lebuh Silikon, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Huey Fang Teh
- Sime Darby Plantation Technology Centre Sdn Bhd, 1st Floor, Block B, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre III, Lebuh Silikon, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | | | - Chin Ping Tan
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Oi Ming Lai
- Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.,Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - See Siang Cheah
- Sime Darby Plantation Research Sdn Bhd, Carey Island, Malaysia
| | - David Ross Appleton
- Sime Darby Plantation Technology Centre Sdn Bhd, 1st Floor, Block B, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre III, Lebuh Silikon, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
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11
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Goh KM, Wong YH, Tan CP, Nyam KL. A summary of 2-, 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl ester occurrence during frying and baking processes. Curr Res Food Sci 2021; 4:460-469. [PMID: 34296198 PMCID: PMC8281601 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2021.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Monochloropropanediol (MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters (GE) are the process contaminants found in frying and baking, except the refining process. The free form MCPD and glycidol are released from their parent esters via lipase hydrolysis while they are carcinogen and genotoxic carcinogen, respectively. MCPD esters and GE are formed endogenously during vegetable oil refining process. Then, their concentration were experimented during subsequent food processing methods, especially frying and baking. This review discussed the occurrence of 2-, 3-MCPD esters and GE during frying and baking processes. Process temperature, process duration, presence of precursors, and their combined effects are highly related to MCPD esters and GE formations. An elevated temperature and processing time can increase the formation of these contaminants until an optimum rate and then followed by the decomposition. Also, other factors such as the presence of chloride ions, moisture, and partial acylglycerol can further facilitate MCPD esters and/or GE formation. Frying and baking trigger formation of MCPD esters and GE. MCPD esters and GE are formed endogenously during refining process. The concentration of MCPD esters and GE elevated during thermal processing. Temperature, process duration, and precursors cause MCPD esters and GE formations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Ming Goh
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, 56000, Malaysia
| | - Yu Hua Wong
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chin Ping Tan
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kar Lin Nyam
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, 56000, Malaysia
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12
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The effects of chloride and the antioxidant capacity of fried foods on 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol esters and glycidyl esters during long-term deep-frying. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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13
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Ahmad Tarmizi AH, Kuntom A. The occurrence of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters and glycidyl esters in vegetable oils during frying. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:3403-3419. [PMID: 33397128 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1865264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) are processed-developed contaminants presence in vegetable oils after undergo refining process under excessive heat. Refined oils are extensively used in various frying applications, nevertheless, the reservation against their quality and safety aspects are of major concern to consumers and food industry. Realizing the importance to address these issues, this article deliberates an overview of published studies on the manifestation of 3-MCPDE and GE when vegetable oils undergo for frying process. With the modest number of published frying research associated to 3-MCPDE and GE, we confined our review from the perspectives of frying conditions, product properties, antioxidants and additives, pre-frying treatments and frying oil management. Simplicity of the frying process is often denied by the complexity of reactions occurred between oil and food which led to the development of unwanted contaminants. The behavior of 3-MCPDE and GE is closely related to physico-chemical characteristics of oils during frying. As such, relationships between 3-MCPDE and/or GE with frying quality indices - i.e. acidity in term of free fatty acid or acid value); secondary oxidation in term of p-anisidine value, total polar compounds and its fractions, and refractive index - were also discussed when oils were subjected under intermittent and continuous frying conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azmil Haizam Ahmad Tarmizi
- Product Development and Advisory Services Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ainie Kuntom
- Product Development and Advisory Services Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
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14
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Oey SB, van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Fogliano V, van Leeuwen SPJ. Effective physical refining for the mitigation of processing contaminants in palm oil at pilot scale. Food Res Int 2020; 138:109748. [PMID: 33292933 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to develop a mitigation strategy for the formation of 2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters (2-MCPDE), 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE), and glycidol fatty acid esters (GE) during palm oil refining. Single physical refining was the starting point (the control) for this study. Experimental treatments including a double refining repeating the entire single refining process (T1), double refining with a high-low deodorization temperature (T2), and double deodorization (T3) with similar temperature settings as T2 were performed. Compared with the control experiment, T2 successfully reduced the formation of GE by 87%; in particular, the second degumming and bleaching were crucial for eliminating GE. Both 2- and 3-MCPDE were formed prior to the deodorization process in all treatments. MCPDE concentrations remained stable throughout the refining process and, hence, they require a different mitigation approach as compared to GE. These results provide useful insights which can directly be implemented by the oil industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio B Oey
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - H J van der Fels-Klerx
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands; Wageningen University, Business Economics Group, Hollandseweg 1, 6706 KN Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Vincenzo Fogliano
- Department of Food Quality and Design, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Stefan P J van Leeuwen
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR), Wageningen University & Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands.
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15
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Cui X, Zhang L, Zhou P, Liu Z, Fan S, Yang D, Li J, Liu Q. Dietary exposure of general Chinese population to fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropane-1, 2-diol (3-MCPD) from edible oils and oil-containing foods. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 38:60-69. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1834151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xia Cui
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing, China
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Research Center for Preventive Medicine of Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Pingping Zhou
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaoping Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Sai Fan
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing, China
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Research Center for Preventive Medicine of Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Dajin Yang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Jianwen Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Qing Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
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16
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Sim BI, Khor YP, Lai OM, Yeoh CB, Wang Y, Liu Y, Nehdi IA, Tan CP. Mitigation of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters during the physical refining process of palm oil by micro and macro laboratory scale refining. Food Chem 2020; 328:127147. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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17
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Wong YH, Goh KM, Nyam KL, Cheong LZ, Wang Y, Nehdi IA, Mansour L, Tan CP. Monitoring of heat-induced carcinogenic compounds (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters and glycidyl esters) in fries. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15110. [PMID: 32934328 PMCID: PMC7492222 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72118-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters (GE) are heat-induced contaminants which form during oil refining process, particularly at the high temperature deodorization stage. It is worth to investigate the content of 3-MCPD and GE in fries which also involved high temperature. The content of 3-MCPD esters and GE were monitored in fries. The factors that been chosen were temperature and duration of frying, and different concentration of salt (NaCl). The results in our study showed that the effect was in the order of concentration of sodium chloride < frying duration < frying temperature. The content of 3-MCPD esters was significantly increased whereas GE was significantly decreased, when prolong the frying duration. A high temperature results in a high 3-MCPD ester level but a low GE level in fries. The present of salt had contributed significant influence to the generation of 3-MCPD. The soaking of potato chips in salt showed no significant effect on the level of GE during the frying. The oil oxidation tests showed that all the fries were below the safety limit. Hence, the frying cycle, temperature and the added salt to carbohydrate-based food during frying should be monitored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Hua Wong
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43300, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kok Ming Goh
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43300, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia.,Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, 56000, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kar Lin Nyam
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, 56000, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Ling Zhi Cheong
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, School of Marine Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, China
| | - Yong Wang
- JNU-UPM International Joint Laboratory on Plant Oil Processing and Safety (POPS), Department of Food Science and Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Imededdine Arbi Nehdi
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. BOX 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.,Chemistry Department, El Manar Preparatory Institute for Engineering Studies, Tunis El Manar University, P.O. Box 244, 2092, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Lamjed Mansour
- Zoology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Chin Ping Tan
- Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43300, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia.
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18
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Belkova B, Chytilova L, Kocourek V, Slukova M, Mastovska K, Kyselka J, Hajslova J. Influence of dough composition on the formation of processing contaminants in yeast-leavened wheat toasted bread. Food Chem 2020; 338:127715. [PMID: 32798824 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The influence of dough composition on acrylamide, 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters, and glycidyl esters (GE) formation during bread toasting was investigated. The doughs differed in added amounts of soy lecithin, salt, and reducing agents (l-cysteine and glutathione). The toasting of bread for 2.5 min considerably enhanced the formation of acrylamide and 3-MCPD esters. The addition of lecithin (1%, w/w) resulted in four times higher content of 3-MCPD esters in toasted bread slices. No distinct relationship between dough composition and GE formation in untoasted and toasted bread was found. The addition of reducing agents (0.05%, w/w) mitigated during toasting not only the formation of 3-MCPD esters (more than six times) but also the extent of Maillard reaction that resulted in three times lower amounts of acrylamide and predominant formation of alcohol-like compounds. Toasted bread without reducing agents contained typical Maillard reaction compounds such as aldehydes, alkyl pyrazines, and derivatives of furan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverly Belkova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Chytilova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimir Kocourek
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Slukova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Katerina Mastovska
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kyselka
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Dairy, Fat and Cosmetics, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Hajslova
- University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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19
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Di Campi E, Di Pasquale M, Coni E. Contamination of some foodstuffs marketed in Italy by fatty acid esters of monochloropropanediols and glycidol. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:753-762. [PMID: 32077805 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1725146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acid esters of 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD), 2-MCPD and glycidol (Gly) are food-processing contaminants that cause concerns about possible adverse health effects. The present study evaluates the contamination levels of the three ester classes in 130 samples of foodstuffs marketed in Italy covering 10 food categories, namely margarines, oils, roasted coffee, breakfast cereals, salted crackers, cookies, infant biscuits, rusks, breads and potato crisps. The analytical method employed is a so-called indirect method that entails MCPD/glycidol cleavage from their esterified forms, cleanup, derivatisation and GC-MS analysis. The MCPDs and glycidol concentrations (from esters) were found to be equal or a little higher than the levels reported in previous studies conducted in other European countries and described in the literature. 3-MCPD was the predominant compound in all foodstuffs analysed with the exception for rusks where Gly levels were slightly higher. Considering the sum of MCPD and Gly esters, the most contaminated foodstuffs were seed oils, followed by margarines and cookies, whereas roasted coffee, bread, rusks, cornflakes and infant biscuits were less contaminated with MCPDs and Gly concentrations often below LOQ or LOD values. Refined olive oil, potato chips and salted crackers showed contamination levels intermediate between the two above groups. The results of this study also confirm that the use of palm oil as an ingredient or frying medium is an important cause of increase of the levels of MCPD and Gly esters, especially in salted crackers, rusks and potato crisps. Finally, the Italian intake of 3-MCPD due to the various foods analysed has been calculated and related to TDI. The MoE for Gly was also estimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Di Campi
- Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Di Pasquale
- Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Ettore Coni
- Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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20
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Xu L, Zhang Y, Gong M, Huang J, Jin Q, Wang X, Wang X. Change of fatty acid esters of MCPD and glycidol during restaurant deep frying of fish nuggets and their correlations with total polar compounds. Int J Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.14532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lirong Xu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
| | - Yuanbo Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
| | - Mengyue Gong
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
| | - Jianhua Huang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
| | - Qingzhe Jin
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
| | - Xiaosan Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
| | - Xingguo Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University 1800 Lihu Avenue Wuxi Jiangsu 214122China
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21
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Goh KM, Wong YH, Abas F, Lai OM, Cheong LZ, Wang Y, Wang Y, Tan CP. Effects of shortening and baking temperature on quality, MCPD ester and glycidyl ester content of conventional baked cake. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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22
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Cichelli A, Riciputi Y, Cerretani L, Caboni MF, d'Alessandro N. Glycidols Esters, 2‐Chloropropane‐1,3‐Diols, and 3‐Chloropropane‐1,2‐Diols Contents in Real Olive Oil Samples and their Relation with Diacylglycerols. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/aocs.12302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Cichelli
- Department of Medical, Oral and Biotechnological ScienceUniversity “G. d'Annunzio” of Chieti‐Pescara, Via dei Vestini 66100 Chieti Scalo Chieti Italy
| | - Ylenia Riciputi
- Department of Agricultural and Food Technology ScienceUniversity of Bologna, Viale Fanin 44 40127 Bologna Italy
| | - Lorenzo Cerretani
- Salpa S.c.a.r.l., Via Adriatica, 554 64026 Roseto degli Abruzzi Teramo Italy
| | - Maria F. Caboni
- Department of Agricultural and Food Technology ScienceUniversity of Bologna, Viale Fanin 44 40127 Bologna Italy
| | - Nicola d'Alessandro
- Department of Engineering and GeologyUniversity “G. d'Annunzio” of Chieti‐Pescara, Via dei Vestini 66100 Chieti Scalo Chieti Italy
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23
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Ahmad Tarmizi AH, Abd Razak RA, Abdul Hammid AN, Kuntom A. Effect of Anti-Clouding Agent on the Fate of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Palm Olein during Repeated Frying. Molecules 2019; 24:E2332. [PMID: 31242570 PMCID: PMC6630994 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24122332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Issues on 3-monochloropropane-diol-1,2-diol (MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters in refined oil have gained much attention when these heat-induced contaminants are associated with health implications. Oil that undergoes the frying process could influence the fates of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters, especially with the addition of an anti-clouding agent. In this study, we investigated the effect of polyglycerol fatty acid esters (PGE) on the transients of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in palm olein (POo) during intermittent frying. Thermal resistance of POo fortified with PGE (0.1% to 0.4%) was assessed for 8 h of daily frying operations at 180 °C across five consecutive days. The addition of PGE decelerated the reduction of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters with the progression of frying. The presence of these compounds coincided with the amount of oil taken up by the fried product. The inclusion of PGE in POo also induced higher augmentation of polar compound fractions, i.e., oxidised triacylglycerols (OxTAG) and polymerised triacylglycerols (PTAG), but gave comparable free fatty acid (FFA), p-anisidine value (AnV), total chloride and fatty acid composition (FAC) with control oil (POo). The results also showed that the presence of chloride in POo did not onset further formation of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters throughout the frying period. As the behaviours of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters were affected by PGE, only a sufficient amount should be added into POo to ensure oil clarity at a realistic period.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raznim Arni Abd Razak
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | | | - Ainie Kuntom
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia.
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24
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Nagy K, Redeuil K, Lahrichi S, Nicolas M. Removal of organochlorines from vegetable oils and its benefits in preventing formation of monochloropropanediol diesters. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2019; 36:712-721. [PMID: 30945995 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2019.1588999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the first results on depleting certain organochlorines from vegetable oils without the use of any solvent in order to mitigate monochloropropanediol diesters (MCDPE). The concept is based on separating the organochlorines from the bulk oil by using trapping agents (e.g. monoacylglycerols) that can be easily separated from the oil. The process starts by mixing and homogenizing crude vegetable oils with the trapping agent and subsequently separating the trapping agent from the oil bulk via crystallization. The proof-of-concept of the approach is demonstrated on a spiked sunflower model system, solvent extracted crude sunflower oil, industrially produced crude soybean and corn oils. The depletion of organochlorines in the crude oils and its beneficial effect on the MCPDE content in the heat treated samples is measured by LC-MS. The depletion efficacy of the monitored organochlorines was estimated to be in the 60-95 % range. Both the melting point and polarity of the trapping agents affected the depletion efficacy of the organochlorines. Trapping agents with higher melting point and polarity, such as monostearin were more effective in comparison to high melting point but less polar agents such as palm stearin or agents rich in polar but low melting point monolinolein/monoolein. The effect of organochlorine depletion on the subsequent MPCDE levels in heat treated oil was in the range of 60-90 % reduction depending on the type of the studied oil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kornél Nagy
- a Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Karine Redeuil
- a Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Sabine Lahrichi
- a Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Marine Nicolas
- a Nestlé Research Centre, Vers-chez-les-Blanc , Lausanne , Switzerland
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25
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Wong YH, Goh KM, Nyam KL, Nehdi IA, Sbihi HM, Tan CP. Effects of natural and synthetic antioxidants on changes in 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl ester in palm olein during deep-fat frying. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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26
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Oey SB, van der Fels-Klerx HJ, Fogliano V, van Leeuwen SPJ. Mitigation Strategies for the Reduction of 2- and 3-MCPD Esters and Glycidyl Esters in the Vegetable Oil Processing Industry. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2019; 18:349-361. [PMID: 33336948 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The refining of vegetable oils leads to the formation of 2- and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (2- and 3-MCPD-E), and glycidyl esters (Gly-E). A literature review was performed aiming to provide up-to-date knowledge on mitigation strategies during oil refining that can reduce the formation of these three processing contaminants. The review used the database Scopus and covered the period from 2009 to 2017. Most of the 18 papers dealt with palm oil and two papers with vegetable oil. Most studies focused on 3-MCPD-E, some on Gly-E, and none on 2-MCPD-E. Water degumming was able to reduce the concentrations of 3-MCPD-E by 84% and Gly-E by 26%. Neutralization of the oil reduced concentrations of 3-MCPD-E by 81% and Gly-E by 84%. Bleaching with synthetic magnesium silicate reduced the 3-MCPD-E concentration by 67%. For the deodorization step, several mitigation strategies, such as double-deodorization, the addition of various antioxidants, or a longer deodorization time, can reduce the formations of 3-MCPD-E by 82% and Gly-E by 78%. Postrefining mitigation, including the use of absorbents, enzymes, or rebleaching of the oil, has also been reported to produce desirable contaminant reduction. Postrefining treatment with calcinated zeolite was able to reduce the 3-MCPD-E concentration by 19% and the Gly-E concentration by 77%. Applying combined mitigation strategies to multiple steps of oil refining is likely crucial in order to adequately reduce levels of 3-MCPD-E and Gly-E.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio B Oey
- RIKILT-Wageningen Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Food Quality and Design, Wageningen Univ., P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Vincenzo Fogliano
- Food Quality and Design, Wageningen Univ., P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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27
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Mahmoud YI, Taha A, Soliman S. 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (alpha-chlorohydrin) disrupts spermatogenesis and causes spermatotoxicity in males of the Egyptian fruit-bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus). Biotech Histochem 2018; 93:293-300. [DOI: 10.1080/10520295.2018.1437471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- YI Mahmoud
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - A Taha
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - S Soliman
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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28
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Chai Q, Hayat K, Karangwa E, Duhoranimana E, Zhang X, Xia S, Yu J. Investigating the optimum conditions for minimized 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol esters content and improved sensory attributes during savory beef flavor preparation. Food Chem 2018; 243:96-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.09.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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29
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Formation of free and bound 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol in fat-rich cereal model systems: the impact of flour composition. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-017-0302-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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30
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Zelinkova Z, Giri A, Wenzl T. Assessment of critical steps of a GC/MS based indirect analytical method for the determination of fatty acid esters of monochloropropanediols (MCPDEs) and of glycidol (GEs). Food Control 2017; 77:65-75. [PMID: 28674464 PMCID: PMC5344965 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acid esters of 2- and 3-chloropropanediol (MCPDEs) and fatty acid esters of glycidol (GEs) are commonly monitored in edible fats and oils. A recommendation issued by the European Commission emphasizes the need of generating data on the occurrence of these substances in a broad range of different foods. So far, analytical methods for the determination of MCPDEs and GEs are fully validated only for oils, fats and margarine. This manuscript presents the assessment of critical steps in the AOCS Cd 29a-13 method for the simultaneous determination of MCPDEs and GEs in the fat phase obtained from bakery and potato products, smoked and fried fish and meat, and other cereal products. The trueness of the method is affected by the additional formation of 3-MBPD esters from monoacylglycerols (MAGs), which are frequently present in food. The overestimation of GE contents for some samples was confirmed by the comparison of results with results obtained by an independent analytical method (direct analysis of GE by HPLC-MS/MS). An additional sample pre-treatment by SPE was introduced to remove MAGs from fat prior to the GEs conversion, while the overall method sensitivity was not significantly affected. Trueness of the determination of GEs by the modified analytical procedure was confirmed by comparison with a direct analysis of GEs. The potential impact on accuracy of results of the final sample preparation step of the analytical procedure, the derivatization of free forms MCPD and MBPD with PBA, was evaluated as well. Different commercial batches of PBA showed differences in solubility in a non-polar organic solvent. The PBA derivatization in organic solvent did not affect precision and trueness of the method due to the isotopic standard dilution. However, method sensitivity might be significantly compromised.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thomas Wenzl
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Retieseweg 111, B-2440 Geel, Belgium
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31
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Mitigation role of erythritol and xylitol in the formation of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol and its esters in glycerol and shortbread model systems. Eur Food Res Technol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-017-2916-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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32
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Wong YH, Muhamad H, Abas F, Lai OM, Nyam KL, Tan CP. Effects of temperature and NaCl on the formation of 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in refined, bleached and deodorized palm olein during deep-fat frying of potato chips. Food Chem 2017; 219:126-130. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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33
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Cheng WW, Liu GQ, Wang LQ, Liu ZS. Glycidyl Fatty Acid Esters in Refined Edible Oils: A Review on Formation, Occurrence, Analysis, and Elimination Methods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2017; 16:263-281. [PMID: 33371535 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Glycidyl fatty acid esters (GEs), one of the main contaminants in processed oils, are mainly formed during the deodorization step in the refining process of edible oils and therefore occur in almost all refined edible oils. GEs are potential carcinogens, due to the fact that they readily hydrolyze into the free form glycidol in the gastrointestinal tract, which has been found to induce tumors in various rat tissues. Furthermore, glycidol has already been identified as a "possible human carcinogen'' (group 2A) by the Intl. Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Therefore, significant effort has been devoted to inhibit and eliminate the formation of GEs. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary on the following topics: (i) GE occurrence data for different edible oils and oil-based food products, (ii) precursors of GEs, (iii) factors influencing the formation of GEs, (iv) potential reaction mechanisms involving the leaving group and reaction intermediates, and (v) analytical methods, including the indirect and direct methods. More importantly, the various elimination methods for GEs in refined edible oils are being reviewed with focus on 3 aspects: (i) inhibition and removal of reactants, (ii) modification of reactive conditions, and (iii) elimination of GE products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wei Cheng
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China Univ. of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Guo-Qin Liu
- Guangdong Testing Inst. for Product Quality Supervision and China Natl. Quality Supervision and Testing Center for Foods (Guangdong), Foshan, 528300, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, South China Univ. of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Li-Qing Wang
- Guangdong Testing Inst. for Product Quality Supervision and China Natl. Quality Supervision and Testing Center for Foods (Guangdong), Foshan, 528300, China
| | - Zeng-She Liu
- Bio-Oils Research Unit, Natl. Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1815 N. Univ. St., Peoria, IL, 61604, U.S.A
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34
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Šmidrkal J, Tesařová M, Hrádková I, Berčíková M, Adamčíková A, Filip V. Mechanism of formation of 3-chloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters under conditions of the vegetable oil refining. Food Chem 2016; 211:124-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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35
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Cheng W, Liu G, Liu X. Formation of Glycidyl Fatty Acid Esters Both in Real Edible Oils during Laboratory-Scale Refining and in Chemical Model during High Temperature Exposure. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:5919-5927. [PMID: 27319409 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, the formation mechanisms of glycidyl fatty acid esters (GEs) were investigated both in real edible oils (soybean oil, camellia oil, and palm oil) during laboratory-scale preparation and refining and in chemical model (1,2-dipalmitin (DPG) and 1-monopalmitin (MPG)) during high temperature exposure (160-260 °C under nitrogen). The formation process of GEs in the chemical model was monitored using attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. The results showed that the roasting and pressing process could produce certain amounts of GEs that were much lower than that produced in the deodorization process. GE contents in edible oils increased continuously and significantly with increasing deodorization time below 200 °C. However, when the temperature exceeded 200 °C, GE contents sharply increased in 1-2 h followed by a gradual decrease, which could verify a simultaneous formation and degradation of GEs at high temperature. In addition, it was also found that the presence of acylglycerol (DAGs and MAGs) could significantly increase the formation yield of GEs both in real edible oils and in chemical model. Compared with DAGs, moreover, MAGs displayed a higher formation capacity but substantially lower contribution to GE formation due to their low contents in edible oils. In situ ATR-FTIR spectroscopic evidence showed that cyclic acyloxonium ion intermediate was formed during GE formation derived from DPG and MPG in chemical model heated at 200 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xinqi Liu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Beijing Technology and Business University , Beijing 100048, China
- School of Food and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University , Beijing 100048, China
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36
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Risks for human health related to the presence of 3‐ and 2‐monochloropropanediol (MCPD), and their fatty acid esters, and glycidyl fatty acid esters in food. EFSA J 2016. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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37
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Chai Q, Zhang X, Karangwa E, Dai Q, Xia S, Yu J, Gao Y. Direct determination of 3-chloro-1,2-propanediol esters in beef flavoring products by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra23417h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A sensitive UPLC-TQ-MS method coupled with amino solid-phase extraction was developed for direct determination of 3-MCPD esters in the natural beef flavoring products. This method was evaluated in terms of linearity, repeatability and sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqing Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoming Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
| | - Eric Karangwa
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
| | - Qingyuan Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
| | - Shuqin Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
| | - Jingyang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
| | - Yahui Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology
- School of Food Science and Technology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- People's Republic of China
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38
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Effects of process parameters on 3-MCPD and glycidyl ester formation during steam distillation of olive oil and olive pomace oil. Eur Food Res Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-015-2587-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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39
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Zwagerman R, Overman P. A novel method for the automatic sample preparation and analysis of 3-MCPD-, 2-MCPD-, and glycidylesters in edible oils and fats. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201500358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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40
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Ramli MR, Siew WL, Ibrahim NA, Kuntom A, Abd. Razak RA. Other factors to consider in the formation of chloropropandiol fatty esters in oil processes. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 32:817-24. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1032368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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41
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Zhang Z, Gao B, Zhang X, Jiang Y, Xu X, Yu LL. Formation of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol (3-MCPD) di- and monoesters from tristearoylglycerol (TSG) and the potential catalytic effect of Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:1839-1848. [PMID: 25632842 DOI: 10.1021/jf5061216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated whether and how triacylglycerol (TAG) may serve as a precursor for 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol (3-MCPD) fatty acid ester formation using tristearoylglycerol (TSG). TSG was reacted with inorganic chloride compounds including NaCl, KCl, FeCl2, CuCl2, ZnCl2, FeCl3 and dry HCl, or organic chlorine compound lindane at different temperatures. Only FeCl2 and FeCl3 were able to form 3-MCPD esters from TSG. Further electron spin resonance (ESR) determination of TSG, Fe2(SO4)3 and 5,5-dimethylpyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) reactions revealed potential of Fe ion in promoting free radical generations under the experimental conditions. To further confirm the effect of Fe ion, chelating agent (EDTA-2Na) was added to the model reactions. The results showed for the first time that EDTA-2Na was able to reduce the generation of 3-MCPD esters. In addition, FT-IR examination indicated a possible involvement of a carbonyl group during the reaction. Taking all the observations together, the possible mechanisms, involving the formation of either a cyclic acyloxonium or a glycidol ester radical intermediate, were proposed for generating 3-MCPD fatty acid di- and mono- esters from TAG under a high temperature and low moisture condition, as well as the coformation of glycidol esters. The results from this study may be useful for reducing the level of 3-MCPD esters and related toxicants in the refined edible oils and food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongfei Zhang
- Institute of Food and Nutraceutical Science, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200240, China
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42
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Rahn AK, Yaylayan VA. Mechanism of chemical activation of sodium chloride in the presence of amino acids. Food Chem 2015; 166:301-308. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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43
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Jędrkiewicz R, Głowacz A, Kupska M, Gromadzka J, Namieśnik J. Application of modern sample preparation techniques to the determination of chloropropanols in food samples. Trends Analyt Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2014.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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44
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Solarte C, Balcells M, Torres M, Sala N, Canela-Garayoa R. Preparation of chiral glycerol derivatives using chemoenzymatic approaches. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra04515g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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45
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Zhou H, Jin Q, Wang X, Xu X. Direct measurement of 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol fatty acid esters in oils and fats by HPLC method. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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46
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Carro A, González P, Lorenzo R. Simultaneous derivatization and ultrasound-assisted dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction of chloropropanols in soy milk and other aqueous matrices combined with gas-chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1319:35-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.10.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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47
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Effects of temperature and water content on the formation of 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol fatty acid esters in palm oil under conditions simulating deep fat frying. Eur Food Res Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-013-2126-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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48
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Sun J, Bai S, Bai W, Zou F, Zhang L, Su Z, Zhang Q, Ou S, Huang Y. Toxic mechanisms of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol on progesterone production in R2C rat leydig cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:9955-9960. [PMID: 24040863 DOI: 10.1021/jf400809r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) is a well-known food processing contaminant that has been shown to impede the male reproductive function. However, its mechanism of action remains to be elucidated. In this study, the effects of 3-MCPD on progesterone production were investigated using R2C Leydig cells. 3-MCPD caused concentration-dependent inhibition of cell viability at the IC25, IC50, and IC75 levels of 1.027, 1.802, and 3.160 mM, respectively. Single cell gel/comet assay and atomic force microscopy assay showed that 3-MCPD significantly induced early apoptosis. In addition, 3-MCPD significantly reduced progesterone production by reducing the expression of cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in R2C cells. The change in steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression was highly consistent with progesterone production. Furthermore, the mitochondrial membrane potential and cAMP significantly decreased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianxia Sun
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry, Guangdong University of Technology , Guangzhou, 510006, China
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49
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Analysis of occurrence of 3-monochloropropane-1, 2-diol (3-MCPD) in food in Europe in the years 2009-2011 and preliminary exposure assessment. EFSA J 2013. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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50
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Toxicology, occurrence and risk characterisation of the chloropropanols in food: 2-monochloro-1,3-propanediol, 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol and 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 58:467-78. [PMID: 23712097 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Revised: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Great attention has been paid to chloropropanols like 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol and the related substance glycidol due to their presence in food and concerns about their toxic potential as carcinogens. The other chloropropanols 2-monochloro-1,3-propanediol, 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol and 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol have been found in certain foods, but occurrence data are generally limited for these compounds. 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol has the most toxicological relevance showing clear carcinogenic effects in rats possibly via a genotoxic mechanism. The dietary exposure to 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol is quite low. Calculated "Margins of Exposure" values are above 10,000. It is concluded that the 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol exposure is of low concern for human health. The toxicology of 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol has not been adequately investigated. Its toxicological potential regarding hepatotoxic effects seems to be lower than that of 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol. Limited data show that 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol occurs only in trace amounts in food, indicating that exposure to 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol seems to be also of low concern for human health. The dietary 2-monochloro-1,3-propanediol burden appears to be lower than that of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol. An adequate risk assessment for 2-monochloro-1,3-propanediol cannot be performed due to limited data on the toxicology and occurrence in food. This article reviews the relevant information about the toxicology, occurrence and dietary exposure to the chloropropanols 2-monochloro-1,3-propanediol, 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol and 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol.
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