A Facile Method for the Preparation of Gold Glyconanoparticles from Free Oligosaccharides and Their Applicability in Carbohydrate-Protein Interaction Studies

Gold nanoparticles morphology does not affect the multivalent presentation and antibody recognition of Group A Streptococcus synthetic oligorhamnans

The development of novel delivery systems capable of enhancing the antibody binding affinity and immunoactivity of short length saccharide antigens is at the forefront of modern medicine. In this regard, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) raised great interest as promising nano-vaccine platform, as they do not interfere with the desired immune response and their surface can be easily functionalized, enabling the antigen multivalent presentation. In addition, the nanoparticles morphology can have a great impact on their biological properties. Gram-positive Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a bacterium responsible for many infections and represents a priority healthcare concern, but a universal vaccine is still unavailable. Since all the GAS strains have a cell wall characterized by a common polyrhamnose backbone, this can be employed as alternative antigen to develop an anti-GAS vaccine. Herein, we present the synthesis of two oligorhamnoside fragments and their corresponding oligorhamnoside-AuNPs, designed with two different morphologies. By competitive ELISA we assessed that both symmetric and anisotropic oligorhamnan nanoparticles inhibit the binding of specific polyclonal serum much better than the unconjugated oligosaccharides.

Recent applications of click chemistry for the functionalization of gold nanoparticles and their conversion to glyco-gold nanoparticles

Glycoscience, despite its myriad of challenges, promises to unravel the causes of, potential new detection methods for, and novel therapeutic strategies against, many disease states. In the last two decades, glyco-gold nanoparticles have emerged as one of several potential new tools for glycoscientists. Glyco-gold nanoparticles consist of the unique structural combination of a gold nanoparticle core and an outer-shell comprising multivalent presentation of carbohydrates. The combination of the distinctive physicochemical properties of the gold core and the biological function/activity of the carbohydrates makes glyco-gold nanoparticles a valuable tool in glycoscience. In this review we present recent advances made in the use of one type of click chemistry, namely the azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition, for the functionalization of gold nanoparticles and their conversion to glyco-gold nanoparticles.

A Pilot Study Into the Use of FDG-mNP as an Alternative Approach in Neuroblastoma Cell Hyperthermia

Herein, we present a pilot study concerning the use of fluorodeoxy glucose conjugated magnetite nanoparticles (FDG-mNP) as a potential agent in magnetic nanoparticle mediated neuroblastoma cancer cell hyperthermia. This approach makes use of the 'Warburg effect', utilizing the fact that cancer cells have a higher metabolic rate than normal cells. FDG-mNP were synthesized, then applied to the SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cancer cell line and exposed to an ac magnetic field. 3D Calorimetry was performed on the FDG-mNP compound. Simulations were performed using SEMCAD X software using Thelonious, (an anatomically correct male child model) in order to understand more about the end requirements with respect to cancer cell destruction. We investigated FDG-mNP mediated neuroblastoma cytotoxicity in conjunction with ac magnetic field exposure. Results are presented for 3D FDG-mNP SAR _mnp (10.86 ± 0.99 W/g of particles) using a therapeutic dose of 0.83 mg/ mL. Human model simulations suggest that 43 W/kg SAR _Theo would be required to obtain 42 °C within the centre of a liver tumor (Tumor size, bounding box x = 64, y = 61, z = 65 [mm]), and that the temperature distribution is inhomogeneous within the tumor. Our study suggests that this approach could potentially be used to increase the temperature within cells that would result in cancer cell death due to hyperthermia. Further development of this research will also involve using whole tumors removed from living organisms in conjunction with magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography.

RAFT mediated one-pot synthesis of glycopolymer particles with tunable core–shell morphology

A novel and one-pot RAFT mediated method for the synthesis of colloidal copolymers in which the particle shell is coated with protein binding glycopolymers.

Glyconanomaterials for biosensing applications

Nanomaterials constitute a class of structures that have unique physiochemical properties and are excellent scaffolds for presenting carbohydrates, important biomolecules that mediate a wide variety of important biological events. The fabrication of carbohydrate-presenting nanomaterials, glyconanomaterials, is of high interest and utility, combining the features of nanoscale objects with biomolecular recognition. The structures can also produce strong multivalent effects, where the nanomaterial scaffold greatly enhances the relatively weak affinities of single carbohydrate ligands to the corresponding receptors, and effectively amplifies the carbohydrate-mediated interactions. Glyconanomaterials are thus an appealing platform for biosensing applications. In this review, we discuss the chemistry for conjugation of carbohydrates to nanomaterials, summarize strategies, and tabulate examples of applying glyconanomaterials in in vitro and in vivo sensing applications of proteins, microbes, and cells. The limitations and future perspectives of these emerging glyconanomaterials sensing systems are furthermore discussed.

Novel bio-friendly and non-toxic thiocarbohydrate stabilizers of gold nanoparticles

A new class of stabilizers for gold nanoparticles has been develop with non-toxic thiocarbohydrates that were prepared from d-(+)-gluconic acid δ-lactone and aminoalkylthiols.

Davis-Beirut reaction: route to thiazolo-, thiazino-, and thiazepino-2H-indazoles

Methods for the construction of thiazolo-, thiazino-, and thiazepino-2H-indazoles from o-nitrobenzaldehydes or o-nitrobenzyl bromides and S-trityl-protected 1°-aminothioalkanes are reported. The process consists of formation of the requisite N-(2-nitrobenzyl)(tritylthio)alkylamine, subsequent deprotection of the trityl moiety with TFA, and immediate treatment with aq. KOH in methanol under Davis–Beirut reaction conditions to deliver the target thiazolo-, thiazino-, or thiazepino-2H-indazole in good overall yield. Subsequent S-oxidation gives the corresponding sulfone.

A highly versatile convergent/divergent “onion peel” synthetic strategy toward potent multivalent glycodendrimers

Both convergent and divergent strategies for the synthesis of “onion peel” glycodendrimers are reported which resulted in one of the best multivalent ligands known against the virulent factor from a bacterial lectin isolated from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of technetium-99m labeled galactose derivatives as potential asialoglycoprotein receptor probes in a hepatic fibrosis mouse model

Two galactose derivatives, a monovalent (99m)Tc-MAMA-MGal galactoside and a divalent (99m)Tc-MAMA-DGal galactoside, were synthesized and radiolabeled in high radiochemical purity (>98%). Dynamic microSPECT imaging and biodistribution study of two traces in normal and liver fibrosis mice showed that the (99m)Tc-MAMA-DGal revealed higher specific binding to asialoglycoprotein receptors in liver and then rapidly excreted via both hepatobiliary system and renal clearance. The results suggest that (99m)Tc-MAMA-DGal may be used as SPECT probes for noninvasive evaluation of asialoglycoprotein receptor-related liver dysfunction.

Oriented immobilization of His-tagged protein on a redox active thiol derivative of DPTA-Cu(II) layer deposited on a gold electrode--the base of electrochemical biosensors

This paper concerns the development of an electrochemical biosensor for the determination of Aβ_16–23′ and Aβ_1–40 peptides. The His-tagged V and VC1 domains of Receptor for Advanced Glycation end Products (RAGE) immobilized on a gold electrode surface were used as analytically active molecules. The immobilization of His₆–RAGE domains consists of: (i) formation of a mixed layer of N-acetylcysteamine (NAC) and the thiol derivative of pentetic acid (DPTA); (ii) complexation of Cu(II) by DPTA; (iii) oriented immobilization of His₆–RAGE domains via coordination bonds between Cu(II) sites from DPTA–Cu(II) complex and imidazole nitrogen atoms of a histidine tag. Each modification step was controlled by cyclic voltammetry (CV), Osteryoung square-wave voltammetry (OSWV), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The applicability of the proposed biosensor was tested in the presence of human plasma, which had no influence on its performance. The detection limits for Aβ_1–40 determination were 1.06 nM and 0.80 nM, in the presence of buffer and human plasma, respectively. These values reach the concentration level of Aβ_1–40 which is relevant for determination of its soluble form in human plasma, as well as in brain. This indicates the promising future application of biosensor presented for early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases.

Influence of ligand presentation density on the molecular recognition of mannose-functionalised glyconanoparticles by bacterial lectin BC2L-A

Polyvalent carbohydrate-protein interactions play a key role in bio- and pathological processes, including cell-cell communication and pathogen invasion. In order to study, control and manipulate these interactions gold nanoparticles have been employed as a 3D scaffold, presenting carbohydrate ligands in a multivalent fashion for use as high affinity binding partners and a model system for oligosaccharide presentation at biomacromolecular surfaces. In this study, the binding of a series of mannose-functionalised gold nanoparticles to the dimeric BC2L-A lectin from Burkholderia cenocepacia has been evaluated. BC2L-A is known to exhibit a high specificity for (oligo)mannosides. Due to the unique structure and binding nature of this lectin, it provides a useful tool to study (oligo)saccharides presented on multivalent scaffolds. Surface plasmon resonance and isothermal titration calorimetric assays were used to investigate the effect of ligand presentation density towards binding to the bacterial lectin. We show how a combination of structural complementarities between ligand presentation and lectin architecture and statistical re-binding effects are important for increasing the avidity of multivalent ligands for recognition by their protein receptors; further demonstrating the application of glyconanotechnology towards fundamental glycobiology research as well as a potential towards biomedical diagnostics and therapeutic treatments.

Gold nanoparticle probes: design and in vitro applications in cancer cell culture

A new architecture has been designed by the conjugation of [(18)F]2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose ((18)F-FDG), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and anti-metadherin (Anti-MTDH) antibody which is specific to the metadherin (MTDH) over-expressed on the surface of breast cancer cells. Mannose triflate molecule is used as a precursor for synthesis of (18)F-FDG by nucleophilic fluorination. For the conjugation of (18)F-FDG and AuNPs, cysteamine was first bound to mannose triflate (Man-CA) before synthesizing of (18)F-FDG which has cysteamine sides ((18)FDG-CA). Then, (18)FDG-CA was reacted with HAuCl(4) to obtain AuNPs and with NaBH(4) for reduction of AuNPs. At the end of this procedure, AuNPs were conjugated to (18)F-FDG via disulphide bonds ((18)FDG-AuNP). For the conjugation of Anti-MTDH, 1,1'-carbonyl diimidazol (CDI) was bound to the (18)FDG-AuNP, and Anti-MTDH was conjugated via CDI ((18)FDG-AuNP-Anti-MTDH). This procedure was also performed by using Na(19)F to obtain non-radioactive conjugates ((19)FDG-AuNP-Anti-MTDH). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images demonstrated that synthesized particles were in nano sizes. (18)FDG-AuNP-Anti-MTDH conjugate was characterized and used as a model probe containing both radioactive and optical labels together as well as the biological target. The (18)FDG-AuNP-Anti-MTDH conjugate was applied to MCF7 breast cancer cell line and apoptotic cell ratio was found to be increasing from 2% to 20% following the treatment. Hence, these results have promised an important application potential of this conjugate in cancer research.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: an update for the period 2005-2006

This review is the fourth update of the original review, published in 1999, on the application of MALDI mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2006. The review covers fundamental studies, fragmentation of carbohydrate ions, method developments, and applications of the technique to the analysis of different types of carbohydrate. Specific compound classes that are covered include carbohydrate polymers from plants, N- and O-linked glycans from glycoproteins, glycated proteins, glycolipids from bacteria, glycosides, and various other natural products. There is a short section on the use of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry for the study of enzymes involved in glycan processing, a section on industrial processes, particularly the development of biopharmaceuticals and a section on the use of MALDI-MS to monitor products of chemical synthesis of carbohydrates. Large carbohydrate-protein complexes and glycodendrimers are highlighted in this final section.

Sensitive carbohydrate detection using surface enhanced Raman tagging

Glycomic analysis is an increasingly important field in biological and biomedical research as glycosylation is one of the most important protein post-translational modifications. We have developed a new technique to detect carbohydrates using surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) by designing and applying a Rhodamine B derivative as the SERS tag. Using a reductive amination reaction, the Rhodamine-based tag (RT) was successfully conjugated to three model carbohydrates (glucose, lactose, and glucuronic acid). SERS detection limits obtained with a 633 nm HeNe laser were ∼1 nM in concentration for all the RT-carbohydrate conjugates and ∼10 fmol in total sample consumption. The dynamic range of the SERS method is about 4 orders of magnitude, spanning from 1 nM to 5 μM. Ratiometric SERS quantification using isotope-substituted SERS internal references allows comparative quantifications of carbohydrates labeled with RT and deuterium/hydrogen substituted RT tags, respectively. In addition to enhancing the SERS detection of the tagged carbohydrates, the Rhodamine tagging facilitates fluorescence and mass spectrometric detection of carbohydrates. Current fluorescence sensitivity of RT-carbohydrates is ∼3 nM in concentration while the mass spectrometry (MS) sensitivity is about 1 fmol, achieved with a linear ion trap electrospray ionization (ESI)-MS instrument. Potential applications that take advantage of the high SERS, fluorescence, and MS sensitivity of this SERS tagging strategy are discussed for practical glycomic analysis where carbohydrates may be quantified with a fluorescence and SERS technique and then identified with ESI-MS techniques.

Cell permeable ITAM constructs for the modulation of mediator release in mast cells

Spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) is essential for high affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) mediated mast cell degranulation. Once FcεRI is stimulated, intracellular ITAM motifs of the receptor are diphosphorylated (dpITAM) and Syk is recruited to the receptor by binding of the Syk tandem SH2 domain to dpITAM, resulting in activation of Syk and, eventually, degranulation. To investigate intracellular effects of ITAM mimics, constructs were synthesized with ITAM mimics conjugated to different cell penetrating peptides, i.e. Tat, TP10, octa-Arg and K(Myr)KKK, or a lipophilic C(12)-chain. In most constructs the cargo and carrier were linked to each other through a disulfide bridge, which is convenient for combining different cargos with different carriers and has the advantage that the cargo and the carrier may be separated by reduction of the disulfide once it is intracellular. The ability of these ITAM constructs to label RBL-2H3 cells was assessed using flow cytometry. Fluorescence microscopy showed that the octa-Arg-SS-Flu-ITAM construct was present in various parts of the cells, although it was not homogeneously distributed. In addition, cell penetrating constructs without fluorescent labels were synthesized to examine degranulation in RBL-2H3 cells. Octa-Arg-SS-ITAM stimulated the mediator release up to 140%, indicating that ITAM mimics may have the ability to activate non-receptor bound Syk.

Characterization of multivalent lactose quantum dots and its application in carbohydrate-protein interactions study and cell imaging

We have previously reported a facile and convenient method for the preparation of a new type of lactose-CdSeS/ZnS quantum dots conjugates (Lac-QDs) that exhibit biocompatibility, noncytotoxicity and specificity to leukocytes. In order to further study the carbohydrate-protein interactions, a series of Lac-QDs with different lactose densities and a PEGylated (n=3) lactose-QDs conjugate (LacPEG-QDs) with more flexible sugar ligands were prepared. The amount of the sugar molecules on QDs can be determined by NMR, which was in agreement with the results from TGA determination. The formula of the conjugates was determined with ICP-OES. The interactions between the conjugated QDs and the PNA protein were measured using SPR, which revealed that higher lactose density favored binding affinity under the same concentration, and Lac-QDs exhibit higher affinity than LacPEG-QDs. We further used a solid phase assay to assess the anti-adhesion activity of Lac-QDs and LacPEG-QDs on the cell level. The results showed that Lac-QDs had stronger activity in preventing THP1 from adhering to HUVEC than LacPEG-QDs, which was consistent with the SPR results. We reasoned that decrease in the conformational entropy induced by appropriate restriction of sugar flexibility could enhance the binding affinity of glyco-QDs, which implies that entropy change may be the main contributor to the interaction between high valent glyco-QDs and protein. The fabrication of lactose on QDs provides a fluorescent multivalent carbohydrate probe that can be used as mimics of glycoprotein for the study of carbohydrate-protein interactions and cell imaging.

Glyconanomaterials: synthesis, characterization, and ligand presentation

Glyconanomaterials, nanomaterials carrying surface-tethered carbohydrate ligands, have emerged and demonstrated increasing potential in biomedical imaging, therapeutics, and diagnostics. These materials combine the unique properties of nanometer-scale objects with the ability to present multiple copies of carbohydrate ligands, greatly enhancing the weak affinity of individual ligands to their binding partners. Critical to the performance of glyconanomaterials is the proper display of carbohydrate ligands, taking into consideration of the coupling chemistry, the type and length of the spacer linkage, and the ligand density. This article provides an overview of the coupling chemistry for attaching carbohydrate ligands to nanomaterials, and discusses the need for thorough characterization of glyconanomaterials, especially quantitative analyses of the ligand density and binding affinities. Using glyconanoparticles synthesized by a versatile photocoupling chemistry, methods for determining the ligand density by colorimetry and the binding affinity with lectins by a fluorescence competition assay are determined. The results show that the multivalent presentation of carbohydrate ligands significantly enhances the binding affinity by several orders of magnitude in comparison to the free ligands in solution. The effect is sizeable even at low surface ligand density. The type and length of the spacer linkage also affect the binding affinity, with the longer linkage promoting the association of bound ligands with the corresponding lectins.

Direct amidation of aldoses and decarboxylative amidation of alpha-keto acids: an efficient conjugation method for unprotected carbohydrate molecules

With use of iodine as an appropriate oxidant, unprotected and unmodified aldoses undergo oxidative amidation with a variety of functionalized amines, alpha-amino esters, and peptides, whereas KDO, sialic acid, and other alpha-keto acids proceed with oxidative decarboxylation followed by in situ amidation. Glycoside bond and many other functional groups are inert under such mild reaction conditions. This reaction protocol for direct ligation of carbohydrate molecules looks promising in the development of a general and efficient synthesis of glycoconjugates.

Glyconanoparticles allow pre-symptomatic in vivo imaging of brain disease

Initial recruitment of leukocytes in inflammation associated with diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), ischemic stroke, and HIV-related dementia, takes place across intact, but activated brain endothelium. It is therefore undetectable to symptom-based diagnoses and cannot be observed by conventional imaging techniques, which rely on increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in later stages of disease. Specific visualization of the early-activated cerebral endothelium would provide a powerful tool for the presymptomatic diagnosis of brain disease and evaluation of new therapies. Here, we present the design, construction and in vivo application of carbohydrate-functionalized nanoparticles that allow direct detection of endothelial markers E-/P-selectin (CD62E/CD62P) in acute inflammation. These first examples of MRI-visible glyconanoparticles display multiple copies of the natural complex glycan ligand of selectins. Their resulting sensitivity and binding selectivity has allowed acute detection of disease in mammals with beneficial implications for treatment of an expanding patient population suffering from neurological disease.

A simple assay to probe disease-associated enzyme activity using glycosaminoglycan-assisted synthesized gold nanoparticles

A simple assay to probe disease-associated enzyme activity using glycosaminoglycan-assisted synthesized gold nanoparticles is reported.

Functionalization of magnetic nanoparticles with organic molecules: Loading level determination and evaluation of linker length effect on immobilization

A general method is introduced to immobilize organic molecules on magnetic nanoparticles through silanization reactions and determine the maximum loading level by UV-vis spectroscopy. Loading levels of 1.5 x 10(-3) mol per gram of nanoparticle were obtained with structurally diverse compounds such as rhodamine B and glucosamine. The length of the linker did not have a significant effect on loading as comparable maximum amounts of rhodamine B were immobilized on magnetic nanoparticles regardless of the linker length. Interestingly, rhodamine B derivatives lost conjugation during synthetic manipulations due to reversible spiroisobenzofuran formation. Full regeneration of conjugation was found to be slow with rhodamine B attached on magnetic nanoparticles. The results obtained from these studies will be useful for studying surface functionalization of MNPs in general.

Multiutility sophorolipids as nanoparticle capping agents: synthesis of stable and water dispersible Co nanoparticles

Sophorolipids are a class of glycolipids that can be obtained from fatty acids by simply treating them with yeast cells (Candida bombicola, ATCC 22214) and glucose. In this letter, we demonstrate the application of sophorolipids obtained from oleic acid as a capping agent for Co nanoparticles. Upon capping the nanoparticle surface, the sugar moiety of these sophorolipids is exposed to the solvent environment, making the nanoparticles stable and water-redispersible.

Phantom nanoparticles as probes of biomolecular interactions

A new light-scattering-based method to detect molecular interactions at the surface of low-refractive-index nanoparticles was recently proposed. Water-dispersed nanoparticles functionalized with receptors typical of immature bacteria cell walls were used to study the activity of the antibiotic vancomycin. This method subtly depends on the specific properties of the nanoparticles. Here we discuss, by comparative experiments and through theoretical evaluation, the effects of size, refractive index, electric charge, and dilution on the reliability and accuracy of the method. Quite surprisingly, perfect index matching and minimal size (i.e., maximum surface), which is almost attained in one of the colloids here employed, do not represent the ideal conditions. Rather, we show that a nanoparticle radius of 100 nm and a refractive index slightly below that of water yields the best signal/background amplitude. We also show that repulsive interactions can lead to artifacts in the adsorption isotherm, thus indicating that electrostatic stabilization should be kept at a minimum. The close agreement between the interaction strengths, as measured with two different nanoparticle systems, testifies to the reliability of the method.

Solid-phase chemical tools for glycobiology

Techniques involving solid supports have played crucial roles in the development of genomics, proteomics, and in molecular biology in general. Similarly, methods for immobilization or attachment to surfaces and resins have become ubiquitous in sequencing, synthesis, analysis, and screening of oligonucleotides, peptides, and proteins. However, solid-phase tools have been employed to a much lesser extent in glycobiology and glycomics. This review provides a comprehensive overview of solid-phase chemical tools for glycobiology including methodologies and applications. We provide a broad perspective of different approaches, including some well-established ones, such as immobilization in microtiter plates and to cross-linked polymers. Emerging areas such as glycan microarrays and glycan sequencing, quantum dots, and gold nanoparticles for nanobioscience applications are also discussed. The applications reviewed here include enzymology, immunology, elucidation of biosynthesis, and systems biology, as well as first steps toward solid-supported sequencing. From these methods and applications emerge a general vision for the use of solid-phase chemical tools in glycobiology.

Evaluation of α-d-mannopyranoside glycolipid micelles–lectin interactions by surface plasmon resonance method

It is established that achieving higher binding affinities in carbohydrate-protein interactions requires multivalent presentations of the sugar ligands at the receptor binding site. Several inhibition, calorimetric, mass balance, and other studies have reiterated the beneficial effects of molecular level clustering of the sugar ligands for tight binding to the receptors. We have undertaken an effort to study the multivalent effects involving larger assemblies, represented by micelles, and their lectin interactions. The micelles were constituted with monomer bearing one- or two-sugar moieties at the monomolecular level and with varying the distances between the sugar moieties. Micellar aggregation studies and dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies afforded details of the aggregation numbers and the hydrodynamic diameters of various glycolipid (GL) micelles. The GL micelles were used as analytes of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments on a lectin concanavalin A (Con A)-immobilized surface. SPR studies of the micelle-lectin interactions demonstrate that the ligand-receptor binding can be fit into the bivalent analyte model of interaction. Furthermore, micelles formed from two-sugar containing GLs are able to elicit favorable kinetic association rate constants in comparison to the micelles constituted with one-sugar containing GLs. The kinetic rate constants across the micelles and the effect of the sugar valencies in the GLs are discussed.

Analysis of carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions using gold glyconanoparticles and oligosaccharide self-assembling monolayers

Carbohydrates are the most extended structures exposed at the surface of most cells. These carbohydrate chains, when arranged in polyvalent clusters, offer a rich supply of low-affinity binding sites, making them a reliable and flexible system to regulate cell adhesion and recognition. The very first model system for cell-cell recognition by means of carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions in the animal kingdom came from a primitive invertebrate animal: the marine sponge. During the past 50 years, studies have shown that highly repetitive carbohydrate motives on extracellular proteoglycan supramolecular complexes of marine sponge cells are involved in the species-specific adhesion. In this chapter, some glyconanotechnology procedures are described for the detailed investigation of the role of a carbohydrate epitope in the marine sponge cell recognition. The various protocols are generally applicable in other areas of glycoscience.

Glyconanoparticles: types, synthesis and applications in glycoscience, biomedicine and material science

Nanoparticles are the subject of numerous papers and reports and are full of promises for electronic, optical, magnetic and biomedical applications. Although metallic nanoparticles have been functionalized with peptides, proteins and DNA during the last 20 years, carbohydrates have not been used with this purpose until 2001. Since the first synthesis of gold nanoparticles functionalized with carbohydrates (glyconanoparticles) was reported, the number of published articles has considerably increased. This article reviews progress in the development of nanoparticles functionalized with biological relevant oligosaccharides. The glyconanoparticles constitute a good bio-mimetic model of carbohydrate presentation at the cell surface, and maybe, excellent tools for Glycobiology, Biomedicine and Material Science investigations.