Synthesis of Chiral Tetrahydrofuran Building Blocks from Pantolactones: Application in the Synthesis of Empagliflozin and Amprenavir Analogs

Empagliflozin-A Sodium Glucose Co-transporter-2 Inhibitor: Overview ofits Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Toxicology

BACKGROUND

Empagliflozin is a sodium glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor that has gained significant attention in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Understanding its chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology is crucial for the safe and effective use of this medication.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of empagliflozin, synthesizing the available literature to present a concise summary of its properties and implications for clinical practice.

METHODS

A systematic search of relevant databases was conducted to identify studies and articles related to the chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of empagliflozin. Data from preclinical and clinical studies, as well as post-marketing surveillance reports, were reviewed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

RESULTS

Empagliflozin is a selective SGLT2 inhibitor that works by constraining glucose reabsorption in the kidneys, causing increased urinary glucose elimination. Its unique mechanism of action provides glycemic control, weight reduction, and blood pressure reduction. The drug's chemistry is characterized by its chemical structure, solubility, and stability. Pharmacologically, empagliflozin exhibits favorable pharmacokinetic properties with rapid absorption, extensive protein binding, and renal elimination. Clinical studies have demonstrated its efficacy in improving glycemic control, reducing cardiovascular risks, and preserving renal function. However, adverse effects, for instance, urinary tract infections, genital infections, and diabetic ketoacidosis have been reported. Toxicological studies indicate low potential for organ toxicity, mutagenicity, or carcinogenicity.

CONCLUSION

Empagliflozin is a promising SGLT2 inhibitor that offers an innovative approach to the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Its unique action mechanism and favorable pharmacokinetic profile contribute to its efficacy in improving glycemic control and reducing cardiovascular risks. While the drug's safety profile is generally favorable, clinicians should be aware of potential adverse effects and monitor patients closely. More study is required to determine the longterm safety and explore potential benefits in other patient populations. Overall, empagliflozin represents a valuable addition to the armamentarium of antidiabetic medications, offering significant benefits to patients suffering from type 2 diabetes mellitus. This study covers all aspects of empagliflozin, including its history, chemistry, pharmacology, and various clinical studies, case reports, and case series.

Comprehensive Strategies to Bicyclic Prolines: Applications in the Synthesis of Potent Arginase Inhibitors

Comprehensive synthetic strategies afforded a diverse set of structurally unique bicyclic proline-containing arginase inhibitors with a high degree of three-dimensionality. The analogs that favored the Cγ-exo conformation of the proline improved the arginase potency over the initial lead. The novel synthetic strategies reported here not only enable access to previously unknown stereochemically complex proline derivatives but also provide a foundation for the future synthesis of bicyclic proline analogs, which incorporate inherent three-dimensional character into building blocks, medicine, and catalysts and could have a profound impact on the conformation of proline-containing peptides and macrocycles.

Biocatalytic Construction of Quaternary Centers by Aldol Addition of 3,3-Disubstituted 2-Oxoacid Derivatives to Aldehydes

The congested nature of quaternary carbons hinders their preparation, most notably when stereocontrol is required. Here we report a biocatalytic method for the creation of quaternary carbon centers with broad substrate scope, leading to different compound classes bearing this structural feature. The key step comprises the aldol addition of 3,3-disubstituted 2-oxoacids to aldehydes catalyzed by metal dependent 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate hydroxymethyltransferase from E. coli (KPHMT) and variants thereof. The 3,3,3-trisubstituted 2-oxoacids thus produced were converted into 2-oxolactones and 3-hydroxy acids and directly to ulosonic acid derivatives, all bearing gem-dialkyl, gem-cycloalkyl, and spirocyclic quaternary centers. In addition, some of these reactions use a single enantiomer from racemic nucleophiles to afford stereopure quaternary carbons. The notable substrate tolerance and stereocontrol of these enzymes are indicative of their potential for the synthesis of structurally intricate molecules.