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Bilişli Y, Çakmak F, Zetter SA, Ünal MI. Navigating truth and disinformation: A comparative analysis of generational responses to the 6 February 2023 earthquake in digital media in Türkiye. Heliyon 2024; 10:e38667. [PMID: 39397969 PMCID: PMC11471220 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 09/14/2024] [Accepted: 09/26/2024] [Indexed: 10/15/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aims to examine how different generations perceived and responded to news and disinformation about the February 6, 2023 Earthquake in Türkiye, focusing on their trust in news sources and methods of verifying authenticity. In this study, the data were collected from semi-structured interviews held with 30 participants using qualitative methods and they were analyzed with MAXQDA Analytics Pro 2022, through thematic analysis to uncover generational nuances in digital media engagement and trust. The analysis revealed five primary themes: digital media usage habits, trust and reliability in news sources, fake news verification practices, causes of fake news, and views on media legislation. The findings of the study indicated significant generational differences in digital media consumption habits. Notably, maintaining consistent online presence and integrating digital media into everyday life in Generation Z stood out as decisive factors in their reactions to news and disinformation about the February 6, 2023 Earthquake. The study also highlighted varied approaches among generations toward detecting disinformation. While Generation X preferred to use the methods of verification over broadcast media, Generations Y and Z showed a propensity for utilizing digital tools for identifying and verifying fake news. Attitudes toward media legislation differed among generations, yet there was a general consensus on the necessity of such laws to adapt to the digital age's challenges and play a crucial role in combating disinformation. This study offered a detailed comparative analysis on how different generations use digital media and their attitudes toward accuracy of news, particularly in response to significant events such as the February 6, 2023 Earthquake in Türkiye. This study would contribute to adopt a deeper understanding about the critical role of accurate information access during crises and the varying media consumption habits and attitudes toward disinformation across generations. The study emphasized the importance of tailored approaches in media literacy education and disinformation counter-strategies, as well as the need for media laws to be updated in accordance with the demands of the digital era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasemin Bilişli
- Department of Office Services and Secretariat, Social Sciences Vocational School, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Türkiye
| | - Fatma Çakmak
- Fethiye Faculty of Business Administration, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Türkiye
| | - Selin Aygen Zetter
- Department of Office Services and Secretariat, Social Sciences Vocational School, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Türkiye
| | - Mehmet Ilgaz Ünal
- Department of Office Services and Secretariat, Social Sciences Vocational School, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Türkiye
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2
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Fernbach PM, Bogard JE. Conspiracy Theory as Individual and Group Behavior: Observations from the Flat Earth International Conference. Top Cogn Sci 2024; 16:187-205. [PMID: 37202921 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Conspiratorial thinking has been with humanity for a long time but has recently grown as a source of societal concern and as a subject of research in the cognitive and social sciences. We propose a three-tiered framework for the study of conspiracy theories: (1) cognitive processes, (2) the individual, and (3) social processes and communities of knowledge. At the level of cognitive processes, we identify explanatory coherence and faulty belief updating as critical ideas. At the level of the community of knowledge, we explore how conspiracy communities facilitate false belief by promoting a contagious sense of understanding, and how community norms catalyze the biased assimilation of evidence. We review recent research on conspiracy theories and explain how conspiratorial thinking emerges from the interaction of individual and group processes. As a case study, we describe observations the first author made while attending the Flat Earth International Conference, a meeting of conspiracy theorists who believe the Earth is flat. Rather than treating conspiracy belief as pathological, we take the perspective that is an extreme outcome of common cognitive processes.
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Lwin MO, Sheldenkar A, Tng PL. You must be myths-taken: Examining belief in falsehoods during the COVID-19 health crisis. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0294471. [PMID: 38442102 PMCID: PMC10914263 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0294471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of health myths is increasing with the rise of Internet use. Left unaddressed, online falsehoods can lead to harmful behaviours. In times of crisis, such as the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the circulation of many myths is exacerbated, often to varying degrees among different cultures. Singapore is a multicultural hub in Asia with Western and Asian influences. Although several studies have examined health myths from a Western or Eastern perspective, little research has investigated online health falsehoods in a population that is culturally exposed to both. Furthermore, most studies examined myths cross-sectionally instead of capturing trends in myth prevalence over time, particularly during crisis situations. Given these literature gaps, we investigated popular myths surrounding the recent COVID-19 pandemic within the multicultural setting of Singapore, by examining its general population. We further examined changes in myth beliefs over the two-year period during the pandemic, and population demographic differences in myth beliefs. Using randomised sampling, two online surveys of nationally representative samples of adults (aged 21-70 years) residing in Singapore were conducted, the first between October 2020 and February 2021 (N = 949), and the second between March and April 2022 (N = 1084). Results showed that 12.7% to 57.5% of the population were unable to identify various myths, such as COVID-19 was manmade, and that three of these myths persisted significantly over time (increases ranging from 3.9% to 9.8%). However, belief in myths varied across population demographics, with ethnic minorities (Indians and Malays), females, young adults and those with lower education levels being more susceptible to myths than their counterparts (p < 0.05). Our findings suggest that current debunking efforts are insufficient to effectively counter misinformation beliefs during health crises. Instead, a post-COVID-19 landscape will require targeted approaches aimed at vulnerable population sub-groups, that also focus on the erroneous beliefs with long staying power.
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Affiliation(s)
- May Oo Lwin
- Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Anita Sheldenkar
- Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Pei Ling Tng
- Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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4
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Varet F, Adam-Troian J, Bonetto E, Akinyemi A, Lantian A, Voisin D, Delouvée S. Experimental manipulation of uncanny feeling does not increase adherence to conspiracy theories. Scand J Psychol 2024; 65:144-156. [PMID: 37667647 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Research over the past decade has shown that endorsement of conspiracy theories (CTs) is shaped by motivated cognition processes. Accordingly, CTs are theorized to stem from compensatory processes, as individuals attempt to cope with existential threats (i.e., uncertainty, loss of control). Based on the meaning maintenance model, we investigated whether this compensatory effect could follow from epistemic threats in domains unrelated to CTs in the form of uncanniness. Feelings of uncanniness were experimentally manipulated through exposure to absurdist art and literature in a set of five studies, followed by a mini meta-analysis (Ntotal = 1,041). We conducted a final, preregistered sixth study (N = 266) manipulating uncanniness through autobiographical recall. No robust evidence for a compensatory effect was found. We discussed methodological and conceptual limitations of the meaning maintenance model, as well as boundary conditions under which conspiracy theories could have a compensatory function to deal with threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Varet
- Anthropo-Lab, ETHICS EA 7446, Université Catholique de Lille, Lille, France
| | | | - Eric Bonetto
- Aix Marseille University, PSYCLE, Aix-en-Provence, France
- InCIAM, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - Alexis Akinyemi
- Laboratoire Parisien de Psychologie Sociale, EA 4386 (équipe PS2C), Nanterre, France
| | - Anthony Lantian
- Département de Psychologie, Laboratoire Parisien de Psychologie Sociale, UPL, Univ Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France
| | - Dimitri Voisin
- C2S Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Sylvain Delouvée
- Department of Psychology, LP3C-EA 1285, University Rennes, Rennes, France
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5
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Müller P, Hartmann M. Linking paranormal and conspiracy beliefs to illusory pattern perception through signal detection theory. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9739. [PMID: 37328598 PMCID: PMC10275861 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-36230-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous research indicates that irrational beliefs (Paranormal beliefs & conspiracy theory endorsement) are associated with the perception of patterns in noise, but the previous findings do not conclusively describe this relationship. This study aims to disentangle the underlying parameters of this association by applying a signal detection theory approach, thus allowing to distinguish illusory pattern perception (false alarms) from perceptual sensitivity and response tendencies-while also taking base rate information into account. Results from a large sample (N = 723) indicate that paranormal beliefs relate to a more liberal response bias and a lower perceptual sensitivity, and that this relationship is driven by illusory pattern perception. Such a clear pattern could not be observed for conspiracy beliefs, for which the increase in false alarm rates was moderated by the base rate. The associations between irrational beliefs and illusory pattern perception were however less substantial compared to other sources of variance. Implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Müller
- Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, 3900, Brig, Switzerland.
- Institute of Psychology, Universität Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias Hartmann
- Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, 3900, Brig, Switzerland
- Institute of Psychology, Universität Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
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6
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Fasce A. The explanation-polarisation model: Pseudoscience spreads through explanatory satisfaction and group polarisation. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.5964/jspp.8051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This article presents an integrative model for the endorsement of pseudoscience: the explanation-polarisation model. It is based on a combination of perceived explanatory satisfaction and group polarisation, offering a perspective different from the classical confusion-based conception, in which pseudoscientific beliefs would be accepted through a lack of distinction between science and science mimicry. First, I discuss the confusion-based account in the light of current evidence, pointing out some of its explanatory shortcomings. Second, I develop the explanation-polarisation model, showing its explanatory power in connection with recent research outcomes in cognitive and social psychology.
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7
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Prooijen JWV. Psychological benefits of believing conspiracy theories. Curr Opin Psychol 2022; 47:101352. [PMID: 35644093 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Many people believe conspiracy theories, even though such beliefs are harmful to themselves and their social environment. What is the appeal of conspiracy theories? In this contribution, I propose that conspiracy theories have psychological benefits by imbuing perceiver's worldview with meaning and purpose in a rewarding manner. Conspiracy theories enable an alternative reality in which perceivers (a) can defend a fragile ego by perceiving themselves and their groups as important, (b) can rationalize any of their beliefs and actions as legitimate, and (c) are entertained through the opportunity to uncover a mystery in an exciting tale. These are short-term benefits, however, suggesting that conspiracy theories provide people with a form of instant gratification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands; The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Netherlands; Maastricht University, Netherlands.
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8
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Olcaysoy Okten I, Gollwitzer A, Oettingen G. When knowledge is blinding: The dangers of being certain about the future during uncertain societal events. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2022.111606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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The Complex Relationship Between Conspiracy Belief and the Politics of Social Change. Curr Opin Psychol 2022; 47:101354. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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10
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Stasielowicz L. Who believes in conspiracy theories? A meta-analysis on personality correlates. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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van Prooijen J, Ligthart J, Rosema S, Xu Y. The entertainment value of conspiracy theories. Br J Psychol 2022; 113:25-48. [PMID: 34260744 PMCID: PMC9290699 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Many citizens around the globe believe conspiracy theories. Why are conspiracy theories so appealing? Here, we propose that conspiracy theories elicit intense emotions independent of emotional valence. People therefore find conspiracy theories entertaining - that is, narratives that people perceive as interesting, exciting, and attention-grabbing - and such entertainment appraisals are positively associated with belief in them. Five studies supported these ideas. Participants were exposed to either a conspiratorial or a non-conspiratorial text about the Notre Dame fire (Study 1) or the death of Jeffrey Epstein (preregistered Study 2). The conspiratorial text elicited stronger entertainment appraisals and intense emotions (independent of emotional valence) than the non-conspiratorial text; moreover, entertainment appraisals mediated the effects of the manipulation on conspiracy beliefs. Study 3 indicated that participants endorsed stronger conspiracy beliefs when an election event was described in an entertaining rather than a boring manner. Subsequent findings revealed that both organisational (Study 4) and societal conspiracy beliefs (Study 5) are positively associated with sensation seeking - a trait characterised by a preference for exciting and intense experiences. We conclude that one reason why people believe conspiracy theories is because they find them entertaining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan‐Willem van Prooijen
- VU AmsterdamThe Netherlands
- The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR)AmsterdamThe Netherlands
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12
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Löffler P. Review: Vaccine Myth-Buster - Cleaning Up With Prejudices and Dangerous Misinformation. Front Immunol 2021; 12:663280. [PMID: 34177902 PMCID: PMC8222972 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.663280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although vaccines have already saved and will continue to save millions of lives, they are under attack. Vaccine safety is the main target of criticism. The rapid distribution of false information, or even conspiracy theories on the internet has tremendously favored vaccine hesitancy. The World Health Organization (WHO) named vaccine hesitancy one of the top ten threats to global health in 2019. Parents and patients have several concerns about vaccine safety, of which the ubiquitous anxieties include inactivating agents, adjuvants, preservatives, or new technologies such as genetic vaccines. In general, increasing doubts concerning side effects have been observed, which may lead to an increasing mistrust of scientific results and thus, the scientific method. Hence, this review targets five topics concerning vaccines and reviews current scientific publications in order to summarize the available information refuting conspiracy theories and myths about vaccination. The topics have been selected based on the author's personal perception of the most frequently occurring safety controversies: the inactivation agent formaldehyde, the adjuvant aluminum, the preservative mercury, the mistakenly-drawn correlation between vaccines and autism and genetic vaccines. The scientific literature shows that vaccine safety is constantly studied. Furthermore, the literature does not support the allegations that vaccines may cause a serious threat to general human life. The author suggests that more researchers explaining their research ideas, methods and results publicly could strengthen the general confidence in science. In general, vaccines present one of the safest and most cost-effective medications and none of the targeted topics raised serious health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Löffler
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany
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13
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Rosenberg BD, Siegel JT. Threatening uncertainty and psychological reactance: are freedom threats always noxious? CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01640-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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14
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Perceived lack of control and conspiracy theory beliefs in the wake of political strife and natural disaster. PSIHOLOGIJA 2021. [DOI: 10.2298/psi201115009s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
While lack of control is one plausible explanation for conspiracy beliefs,
the experimental evidence is mixed. We present two naturalistic studies that
offer some limited support for the control hypothesis. In the first,
Macedonians living in (North) Macedonia (N = 116) completed a conspiracy
ideation scale immediately after a national referendum on the country?s name
change from ?Macedonia? to ?North Macedonia,? and one year after. The
opposition, whose control was lowered after the name change, increased their
conspiracy beliefs, but supporters did not. Study 2, conducted with
Americans (N = 266) in the wake of a series of devastating tornadoes,
replicated and expanded the first study: the effects were evident only for
the threatening event-related conspiracy beliefs. These studies suggest a
possible link between lack of control and conspiracy beliefs in the real
world.
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15
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Roth M, Altmann T. A Comparison of the Predictive Validity of Self-Esteem Level and Directly Measured Self-Esteem Stability in the Temporal Prediction of Psychological Distress. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1770. [PMID: 32849049 PMCID: PMC7396498 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast to the widely used assessment approach in which self-esteem stability is measured as the standard deviation of repeated measurements, direct measurements of self-esteem stability have hardly ever been implemented in longitudinal studies. The primary goal of the present study was to examine the temporal stability and predictive validity of a direct assessment of self-esteem stability compared with the trait level of self-esteem with respect to the prediction of psychological distress (PD). We examined a sample of 136 employees who completed self-report measures of both self-esteem level [Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)] and self-esteem stability [Self-Esteem Stability Scale (SESS)] along with a measure of PD (SCL-90) at two time points across an interval of 1 year. The results underline the relevance of perceived self-esteem stability in the temporal prediction of PD: After controlling for initial PD, we found that self-esteem stability predicted PD better than self-esteem level did. Therefore, we recommend that the RSES be expanded by adding the three SESS items that directly measure the stability of self-esteem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Roth
- Department of Psychology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Tobias Altmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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van Prooijen JW, Song M. The cultural dimension of intergroup conspiracy theories. Br J Psychol 2020; 112:455-473. [PMID: 32790180 PMCID: PMC8246844 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Although conspiracy theories are ubiquitous across times and cultures, research has not investigated how cultural dimensions may predict conspiracy beliefs. The present research examined intergroup conspiracy beliefs in United States and Chinese samples at the peak of the trade war. In two studies (one pre‐registered; total N = 1,092), we asked US participants to what extent they believed Chinese institutions and companies were conspiring against the United states and Chinese participants to what extent they believed US institutions and companies were conspiring against China. Results revealed that such beliefs were stronger among Chinese than US participants due to higher power distance values and vertical collectivism. In particular, these cultural dimensions were associated with increased psychological involvement in intergroup conflict (as reflected by higher levels of collective narcissism and perceived outgroup threat), which in turn predicted intergroup conspiracy beliefs. Exploratory analyses suggested that particularly power distance values mediate these effects. We conclude that cultural dimensions that promote hierarchy in society are associated with increased intergroup conspiracy beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mengdi Song
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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17
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Drinkwater KG, Dagnall N, Denovan A, Neave N. Psychometric assessment of the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230365. [PMID: 32191741 PMCID: PMC7082021 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCBS) is the most widely used measure of general belief in conspiracy theories. The scale comprises five related but distinct factors (Government Malfeasance, Extraterrestrial Cover-up, Malevolent Global Conspiracies, Personal Wellbeing, and Control of Information). Despite this, investigators have typically treated the GCBS as unidimensional by referencing only overall total. Although, the GCBS possesses established psychometric properties, critics question its factorial structure, suggest alternative models, and recommend routine examination of GCBS dimensions as part of analysis. Through two studies, the present paper assessed GCBS factorial structure, internal reliability, convergent validity, and invariance. This involved comparing the original five-factor solution with alternative one, two, and three-factor models. To ensure that the best fitting model was robust, the authors conducted analysis in two independent samples (Study one, N = 794, UK university-based sample; and Study two, N = 418, UK respondents collected via a market research company). Results in both studies indicated superior fit for the correlated five-factor solution. This solution demonstrated invariance across gender, and samples (Study one and two). Furthermore, the total scale and five subfactors evinced good alpha and omega total reliability. Convergent validity testing exhibited associations of an expected strength between conspiracist beliefs, reality testing, and cognitive insight. Large intercorrelations existed among GCBS subfactors, suggesting that the measure reflects a narrow set of interrelated conspiracist assumptions. These findings support the use of overall scale scores as an index of belief in conspiracy theories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Graham Drinkwater
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Psychology and Social Care, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Neil Dagnall
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Psychology and Social Care, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Denovan
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Psychology and Social Care, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Nick Neave
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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18
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Imhoff R, Dieterle L, Lamberty P. Resolving the Puzzle of Conspiracy Worldview and Political Activism: Belief in Secret Plots Decreases Normative but Increases Nonnormative Political Engagement. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550619896491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
It is a hitherto open and debated question whether the belief in conspiracies increases or attenuates the willingness to engage in political action. In the present article, we tested the notion, whether (a) the relation between belief in conspiracies and general political engagement is curvilinear (inverted U-shaped) and (b) there may be opposing relations to normative versus nonnormative forms of political engagement. Two preregistered experiments ( N = 194, N = 402) support both propositions and show that the hypothetical adoption of a worldview that sees the world as governed by secret plots attenuates reported intentions to participate in normative, legal forms of political participation but increases reported intentions to employ nonnormative, illegal means of political articulation. These results provide first evidence for the notion that political extremism and violence might seem an almost logical conclusion when seeing the world as governed by conspiracies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Imhoff
- Psychologisches Institut, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat Mainz, Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany
| | | | - Pia Lamberty
- Psychologisches Institut, Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat Mainz, Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany
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19
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Poon KT, Chen Z, Wong WY. Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Following Ostracism. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2020; 46:1234-1246. [PMID: 31928312 DOI: 10.1177/0146167219898944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Four studies (total valid N = 643) examined whether ostracism increases people's political conspiracy beliefs through heightened vulnerability and whether self-affirmation intervention counteracts the effect of ostracism on conspiracy beliefs. Compared with their nonostracized counterparts, ostracized participants were more likely to endorse conspiracy beliefs related to different political issues (Studies 1-3). Moreover, heightened vulnerability mediated the link between ostracism and conspiracy beliefs (Studies 1-3). Offering ostracized participants an opportunity to reaffirm values important to them could reduce their political conspiracy beliefs (Study 4). Taken together, our findings highlight the crucial role of vulnerability in understanding when and why ostracism increases conspiracy beliefs and how to ameliorate this relationship. Our findings also provide novel insights into how daily interpersonal interactions influence people's political beliefs and involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Tak Poon
- The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong
| | | | - Wing-Yan Wong
- The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong
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20
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Abstract
Abstract. People endorse conspiracy theories particularly when they experience existential threat, that is, feelings of anxiety or uncertainty often because of distressing societal events. At the same time, such feelings also often lead people to support groups frequently implicated in conspiracy theories (e.g., the government). The present contribution aims to resolve this paradox by proposing an Existential Threat Model of Conspiracy Theories, which stipulates under what conditions existential threat does versus does not stimulate conspiracy theories. The model specifically illuminates that feelings of existential threat increase epistemic sense-making processes, which in turn stimulate conspiracy theories only when antagonistic outgroups are salient. Moreover, once formed conspiracy theories are not functional to reduce feelings of existential threat; instead, conspiracy theories can be a source of existential threat in itself, stimulating further conspiracy theorizing and contributing to a generalized conspiracist mindset. In the discussion, I discuss implications of the model, and illuminate how one may base interventions on the model to breaks this cyclical process and reduce conspiracy beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam/The NSCR, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Moritz S, Stojisavlevic M, Göritz AS, Riehle M, Scheunemann J. Does uncertainty breed conviction? On the possible role of compensatory conviction in jumping to conclusions and overconfidence in psychosis. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2019; 24:284-299. [PMID: 31311460 DOI: 10.1080/13546805.2019.1642863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Background: Jumping to conclusions (JTC) and overconfidence in errors are well established in individuals with a liability to psychosis. Experimental research suggests that subjecting individuals to dilemmas and doubt prompts a subsequent hardening of attitudes and may foster delusion-like convictions. For the present study, we examined whether this compensatory conviction process is exaggerated in individuals with a liability to psychosis and might in part explain JTC and overconfidence. Methods: A large sample of participants from the general population were screened for psychotic experiences with the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences scale (CAPE) and then randomly allocated to either a condition in which they should experience doubt or a control condition. Participants (final sample, n = 650) were then tested on JTC and overconfidence. Results: Participants who scored high on the positive subscale of the CAPE made fewer draws to decision, showed greater confidence, and made more errors relative to low scorers. Yet, none of the parameters was modulated by experimental condition. Conclusions: Our results at present do not support the idea that JTC is elevated by a prior experience of a dilemma or doubt. Yet, this possibility should not be entirely dismissed as the presumed process may take time to evolve and perhaps needs to be more pervasive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Moritz
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf , Hamburg , Germany
| | - Marko Stojisavlevic
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf , Hamburg , Germany
| | - Anja S Göritz
- b Department of Occupational and Consumer Psychology, University of Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany
| | - Marcel Riehle
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf , Hamburg , Germany
| | - Jakob Scheunemann
- a Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf , Hamburg , Germany
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22
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van Prooijen J, Douglas KM. Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 48:897-908. [PMID: 30555188 PMCID: PMC6282974 DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
In this introduction to the EJSP Special Issue on conspiracy theories as a social psychological phenomenon, we describe how this emerging research domain has developed over the past decade and distill four basic principles that characterize belief in conspiracy theories. Specifically, conspiracy theories are consequential as they have a real impact on people's health, relationships, and safety; they are universal in that belief in them is widespread across times, cultures, and social settings; they are emotional given that negative emotions and not rational deliberations cause conspiracy beliefs; and they are social as conspiracy beliefs are closely associated with psychological motivations underlying intergroup conflict. We then discuss future research and possible policy interventions in this growing area of enquiry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan‐Willem van Prooijen
- VU AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR)AmsterdamThe Netherlands
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23
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van Prooijen JW, van Vugt M. Conspiracy Theories: Evolved Functions and Psychological Mechanisms. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2018; 13:770-788. [PMID: 30231213 PMCID: PMC6238178 DOI: 10.1177/1745691618774270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Belief in conspiracy theories—such as that the 9/11 terrorist attacks were an inside job or that the pharmaceutical industry deliberately spreads diseases—is a widespread and culturally universal phenomenon. Why do so many people around the globe believe conspiracy theories, and why are they so influential? Previous research focused on the proximate mechanisms underlying conspiracy beliefs but ignored the distal, evolutionary origins and functions. We review evidence pertaining to two competing evolutionary hypotheses: (a) conspiracy beliefs are a by-product of a suite of psychological mechanisms (e.g., pattern recognition, agency detection, threat management, alliance detection) that evolved for different reasons, or (b) conspiracy beliefs are part of an evolved psychological mechanism specifically aimed at detecting dangerous coalitions. This latter perspective assumes that conspiracy theories are activated after specific coalition cues, which produce functional counterstrategies to cope with suspected conspiracies. Insights from social, cultural and evolutionary psychology provide tentative support for six propositions that follow from the adaptation hypothesis. We propose that people possess a functionally integrated mental system to detect conspiracies that in all likelihood has been shaped in an ancestral human environment in which hostile coalitions—that is, conspiracies that truly existed—were a frequent cause of misery, death, and reproductive loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam.,2 The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR)
| | - Mark van Vugt
- 1 Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam.,3 Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford
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Greenaway KH, Haslam SA, Bingley W. Are “they” out to get me? A social identity model of paranoia. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430218793190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This research tests a social identity model of paranoia, building on work showing that identification with social groups is associated with less paranoid thinking. Studies 1 ( N = 800) and 2 ( N = 779) supported this model, showing that national group identification is associated with lower paranoia. Study 3 ( N = 784) added to the literature by probing the mechanisms underlying these relationships, and found that it is through enhanced control and trust that identification is associated with better mental health. Studies 4 ( N = 390) and 5 ( N = 904) manipulated identification to provide evidence of causality. A minimeta analysis revealed a robust association between national identification and paranoia across the studies, although no association emerged between political identification and paranoia. The results point to the role that lack of social connections can play in underpinning paranoid thinking, and suggest that, as with other mental health issues, the problems caused by paranoia may have a social cure.
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van Prooijen JW, Staman J, Krouwel AP. Increased conspiracy beliefs among ethnic and Muslim minorities. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology; VU Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR); Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Jaap Staman
- Department of Communication Science; VU Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - André P.M. Krouwel
- Department of Communication Science; VU Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
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26
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Barron D, Furnham A, Weis L, Morgan KD, Towell T, Swami V. The relationship between schizotypal facets and conspiracist beliefs via cognitive processes. Psychiatry Res 2018; 259:15-20. [PMID: 29024855 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to replicate previous work showing relationships between components of schizotypy and conspiracist beliefs, and extend it by examining the mediating role of cognitive processes. An international online sample of 411 women and men (mean age = 35.41 years) completed measures of the schizotypal facets of Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking and Ideas of Reference, conspiracist beliefs, and cognitive processes related to need for cognition, analytic thinking, and cognitive insight. Path analysis confirmed the associations between both schizotypal facets and conspiracist beliefs in the present sample. Confirmatory evidence was found for the association between analytic thinking and conspiracist beliefs, and results also suggested an association between cognitive insight and conspiracist beliefs. Cognitive insight also mediated the link between Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking and Ideas of Reference with conspiracist beliefs. However, analytic thinking provided a mediating link to conspiracy ideation for Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking and not Ideas of Reference. Finally, there was an association between Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking and need for cognition, but this path did not extend to conspiracist beliefs. These results suggest possible mediating roles for analytic thinking and self-certainty between schizotypy and conspiracist beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Barron
- Centre for Psychological Medicine, Perdana University, Serdang, Malaysia; Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, UK.
| | - Adrian Furnham
- Department of Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK; Department of Leadership and Organizational Behaviour, Norwegian Business School, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura Weis
- Department of Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Kevin D Morgan
- Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, UK
| | - Tony Towell
- Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, UK
| | - Viren Swami
- Centre for Psychological Medicine, Perdana University, Serdang, Malaysia; Department of Psychology, Anglia Ruskin, Cambridge, UK
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van Prooijen JW, Douglas KM, De Inocencio C. Connecting the dots: Illusory pattern perception predicts belief in conspiracies and the supernatural. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 48:320-335. [PMID: 29695889 PMCID: PMC5900972 DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A common assumption is that belief in conspiracy theories and supernatural phenomena are grounded in illusory pattern perception. In the present research we systematically tested this assumption. Study 1 revealed that such irrational beliefs are related to perceiving patterns in randomly generated coin toss outcomes. In Study 2, pattern search instructions exerted an indirect effect on irrational beliefs through pattern perception. Study 3 revealed that perceiving patterns in chaotic but not in structured paintings predicted irrational beliefs. In Study 4, we found that agreement with texts supporting paranormal phenomena or conspiracy theories predicted pattern perception. In Study 5, we manipulated belief in a specific conspiracy theory. This manipulation influenced the extent to which people perceive patterns in world events, which in turn predicted unrelated irrational beliefs. We conclude that illusory pattern perception is a central cognitive mechanism accounting for conspiracy theories and supernatural beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Clara De Inocencio
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam The Netherlands.,The University of Kent United Kingdom
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28
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van Prooijen JW, Douglas KM. Conspiracy theories as part of history: The role of societal crisis situations. MEMORY STUDIES 2017; 10:323-333. [PMID: 29081831 PMCID: PMC5646574 DOI: 10.1177/1750698017701615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In the present contribution, we examine the link between societal crisis situations and belief in conspiracy theories. Contrary to common assumptions, belief in conspiracy theories has been prevalent throughout human history. We first illustrate historical incidents suggesting that societal crisis situations-defined as impactful and rapid societal change that calls established power structures, norms of conduct, or even the existence of specific people or groups into question-have stimulated belief in conspiracy theories. We then review the psychological literature to explain why this is the case. Evidence suggests that the aversive feelings that people experience when in crisis-fear, uncertainty, and the feeling of being out of control-stimulate a motivation to make sense of the situation, increasing the likelihood of perceiving conspiracies in social situations. We then explain that after being formed, conspiracy theories can become historical narratives that may spread through cultural transmission. We conclude that conspiracy theories originate particularly in crisis situations and may form the basis for how people subsequently remember and mentally represent a historical event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen, Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, VU Amsterdam, Van der Boechorstraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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van Prooijen JW. Why Education Predicts Decreased Belief in Conspiracy Theories. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 31:50-58. [PMID: 28163371 PMCID: PMC5248629 DOI: 10.1002/acp.3301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 10/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
People with high education are less likely than people with low education to believe in conspiracy theories. It is yet unclear why these effects occur, however, as education predicts a range of cognitive, emotional, and social outcomes. The present research sought to identify mediators of the relationship between education and conspiracy beliefs. Results of Study 1 revealed three independent mediators of this relationship, namely, belief in simple solutions for complex problems, feelings of powerlessness, and subjective social class. A nationally representative sample (Study 2) replicated these findings except for subjective social class. Moreover, variations in analytic thinking statistically accounted for the path through belief in simple solutions. I conclude that the relationship between education and conspiracy beliefs cannot be reduced to a single mechanism but is the result of the complex interplay of multiple psychological factors that are associated with education. © 2016 The Authors. Applied Cognitive Psychology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology VU Amsterdam/The NSCR Amsterdam The Netherlands
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30
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van Prooijen JW, de Vries RE. Organizational Conspiracy Beliefs: Implications for Leadership Styles and Employee Outcomes. JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 31:479-491. [PMID: 27881900 PMCID: PMC5102939 DOI: 10.1007/s10869-015-9428-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Belief in conspiracy theories about societal events is widespread among citizens. The extent to which conspiracy beliefs about managers and supervisors matter in the micro-level setting of organizations has not yet been examined, however. We investigated if leadership styles predict conspiracy beliefs among employees in the context of organizations. Furthermore, we examined if such organizational conspiracy beliefs have implications for organizational commitment and turnover intentions. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH We conducted a survey among a random sample of the US working population (N = 193). FINDINGS Despotic, laissez-faire, and participative leadership styles predicted organizational conspiracy beliefs, and the relations of despotic and laissez-faire leadership with conspiracy beliefs were mediated by feelings of job insecurity. Furthermore, organizational conspiracy beliefs predicted, via decreased organizational commitment, increased turnover intentions. IMPLICATIONS Organizational conspiracy beliefs matter for how employees perceive their leaders, how they feel about their organization, and whether or not they plan to quit their jobs. A practical implication, therefore, is that it would be a mistake for managers to dismiss organizational conspiracy beliefs as innocent rumors that are harmless to the organization. ORIGINALITY/VALUE Three novel conclusions emerge from this study. First, organizational conspiracy beliefs occur frequently among employees. Second, participative leadership predicts decreased organizational conspiracy beliefs; despotic and laissez-faire leadership predict increased organizational conspiracy beliefs due to the contribution of these destructive leadership styles to an insecure work environment. Third, organizational conspiracy beliefs harm organizations by influencing employee commitment and, indirectly, turnover intentions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Willem van Prooijen
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, VU Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- The Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Reinout E. de Vries
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, VU Amsterdam, van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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